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Human Physiology > Flashcards for Summaries > Flashcards

Flashcards for Summaries

1
Q

What is Homeostasis?

A

A dynamic process where we adapt and adjust to maintain equilibrium in the bodies internal environment

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2
Q

What are the components of a feedback system? (5)

A

Set point, Sensor, Control centre, effector and the regulated variable

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3
Q

What does a large gain imply?

A

There is a more sensitive regulation to better maintain normal conditions

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4
Q

What is ‘gain’ of regulated variable and what is it’s equation?

A

The gain of a variable is the precision by which a control system can prevent deviation from homeostasis.

Gain =
Amount of correction needed/Amount of abnormality after correction

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5
Q

What is a reflex response?

A

Knowledge from an integrating centre and a circuitry that connects the
receptor and the effector.

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6
Q

What is a local response?

A

Local homeostatic controls are highly significant because they allow individual parts of the body to self regulate their responses to certain conditions.

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7
Q

What are the 5 intracellular communications?

A

1) Hormone secreting gland > hormone > blood vessel >target cell

2) Nerve cell > Nerve impulse > Neurotransmitter > neuron/effector cell

3) Nerve cell > Nerve impulse > Hormone > Blood vessel > Target cell

4) Local cell > paracrine agent > target cell

5) Local cell > Autocrine agent > back to local cell

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8
Q

What are the bodies two main systems?

A

Endocrine and Nervous systems

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9
Q

What are Hormones?

A

Hormones are chemical messengers carried by the blood to target cells to cause a response

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10
Q

What are the 4 main functions of Hormones?

A

1) Hormones help regulate chemicals, metabolism, immune system, cardiac muscle fibres and glandular secretion
2) Control growth and development
3) Regulate operation of reproductive system
4) Help establish circadian rhythm

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11
Q

What are the 3 main structures of Hormones?

A

Amines, Peptides/Proteins and Steroids

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12
Q

How do Peptide hormones travel, compared to Amine and Steroids?

A

Peptides are water soluble therefore circulate dissolved in plasma whereas the others circulate bound to proteins

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13
Q

What is mainly responsible for removing hormones ?

A

The Liver and Kidney

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14
Q

What affects responsiveness of target cells to Hormones?

A

1) Hormones blood conc
2) Amount of target cells and/or receptors
3) Effects of other hormones

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15
Q

What 6 things does the anterior pituitary gland secrete?

A

Growth Hormone (GH)
Thyroid stimulation hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic (ACTH)
Prolactin
Follicle Stimulating hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone (LH)

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16
Q

What does the posterior pituitary gland secretes ?

A

Oxytocin
Vasopressin

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17
Q

Thyroid hormones function?

A

protein synthesis in follicular epithelial cells

increases DNA replication and cell division

produces thyroxine (called T4) and triiodothyronine (T3-major thyroid hormone)

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18
Q

What are the physiological functions of cortisol? (Non stressful) (3)

A

Maintains a normal BP by affecting the responsiveness of smooth muscle cells to epinephrine and norepinephrine

Maintain enzymes conc required for metabolic homeostasis, preventing decreasing plasma glucose levels

Has anti-inflammatory and anti-immune functions

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19
Q

What are the physiological functions of cortisol? (Stressful)

A
  1. Effects on metabolism
  2. Enhanced vascular reactivity, improving cardiovascular performance
  3. Unidentified protective effects against the damaging influences of stress
  4. Inhibition of inflammation and specific immune responses Inhibition of nonessential functions (e.g reproduction & growth)
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20
Q

What is anterior pituitary gland secretion controlled by and what is the typical sequence of it?

A

It is controlled by Hypophysiotropic hormones from the hypothalamus via portal vessels

Hypophysiotropic hormones controls the secretion of APG hormone which then controls secretion of a 3rd hormone from an endocrine gland

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21
Q

What is the hormone process?

A

Hormones are synthesized in the hypothalamus
axons pass down the infundibulum
terminate in the posterior pituitary and release hormones

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22
Q

Sequence of hormone release?

A

Hypophysiotropic
hormone (hormone 1 from the hypothalamus)
controls the secretion of an anterior pituitary
gland hormone (hormone 2), which controls the secretion of a hormone by a third endocrine gland (hormone 3)

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23
Q

Function of Growth hormone?

A

Major stimulus of postnatal growth.
It stimulates the release of IGF-1 to stimulate cell
division.
Stimulates protein synthesis.

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24
Q

Where is testosterone found in males and females?

A

Males - Testes
Females - Ovaries, adrenal cortex and androgens

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25
Q

Function of testosterone?

A

muscle growth & development of male sex characteristics

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26
Q

Where is Estrogen and Progesterone found in males and females?

A

Females - Ovaries
Males - small tissue in the liver, kidney, bone, skin, brain, breasts and adrenal glands

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27
Q

Functions of Oestrogen and Progesterone?

A

Development of female sex characteristics

Regulates menstrual cycle and adipose tissue growth

Promotes endothelia function

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28
Q

What 4 things are muscles composed of?

A
  • Muscle fibres (cells)
  • Vascular cells
  • Fibroblasts
  • Satellite cells
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29
Q

What is the process of a cross bridge mechanism?

A
  1. Calcium ions released into muscle sarcoplasm
  2. Binding to troponin causing tropomyosin to change and move away from the binding site
  3. Myosin head extend and binds forming a cross bridge
  4. ATP binds to the head detaching
  5. ATP is then hydrolysed and the energy is used to re-attach the head in another binding site
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30
Q

What are the 3 energy systems? And how do they arise?

A

Creative Phosphate - Provides energy fast forming ATP from ADP + P, only lasts 1-2 secs

Glycolysis - Energy from glucose in the absence of o2

Oxidative Phosphorylation - Energy from glucose or fat with o2 preset

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31
Q

What is Excitation-Contraction Coupling for relaxed muscle?

A

There are low calcium ions, therefore cross bridges cannot form as tropomyosin is covering the binding site

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32
Q

Sliding filament process?

A
  1. Calcium ions released into muscle sarcoplasm
  2. Binding to troponin causing tropomyosin to change and move away from the binding site
  3. Myosin head extend and binds forming a cross bridge
  4. ATP binds to the head detaching
  5. ATP is then hydrolysed and the energy is used to re-attach the head in another binding site
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33
Q

Neuromuscular junction process?

A
  1. Action potential arrives opening Ca2+ channels
  2. Fuses vesicles with membrane releasing acetylcholine into synaptic cleft
  3. Ach diffuses across binding to specific receptors on MEP
  4. This opens ion channels allowing sodium ions in, resulting in depolarisation
  5. Once threshold is reached another action potential occurs
  6. Continues doing power strokes until muscle stimulation stops
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34
Q

Excitation-Contraction Coupling for an active muscle?

A

High Calcium, Calcium binds to troponin causing tropomyosin to move away from the binding site allowing actin to bind

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35
Q

What are the 3 muscle fibre types?

A

Type IIx
Type IIa
Type I

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36
Q

What is a motor unit?

A

A motor neuron and all the fibres it stimulates

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37
Q

What are the 5 mechanisms involved in muscle fatigue?

A
  1. Conduction failure
  2. Lactic acid build up
  3. Inhibition of Cross-bridge cycling
  4. Fuel substrates
  5. Central command fatigue
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38
Q

What is Hypertrophy?

A

Increase in muscle fibre size due to addition of contractile proteins, protein synthesis > breakdown

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39
Q

What is hyperplasia?

A

Increase number of muscle fibres

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40
Q

How do neural/structural adaptations lead to increased strength?

A

Increase motor unit recruitment, firing rate and increase muscle mass

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41
Q

What does hypertrophy depend on?(3)

A

Initial strength
Duration of training
Training technique

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42
Q

Resistance training components?(9)

A

1- Time-under-tension
2- Intensity
3- Sets
4- Repetitions
(3-4 = volume)
5- Velocity
6- Exercise order
7- Recovery between sets
8- Frequency
9- Exercise type

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43
Q

What are the 4 main functions of the CV system?

A
  1. Transport o2, nutrients, and metabolites to tissue
  2. Remove waste
  3. Distribute and secrete hormones
  4. Involvement in Homeostatic mechanisms
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44
Q

Equation for resistance?

A

1/r^4 = Poiseuille’s law

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45
Q

Equation for flow?

A

Pressure difference / Resistance = Darcy’s law

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46
Q

How is flow created and what is this called?

A

Pressure difference between two points = Driving pressure

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47
Q

What changes resistance and how is flow affected?

A

The radius of the vessel, the narrower = higher flow as there is more pressure

48
Q

What are the chambers in the Heart?

A

Right/Left Atrium
Right/Left ventricle

49
Q

What are the valves of the heart?

A

Tricuspid valve
Mitral valve
Pulmonary valve
Aortic valve
Coronary arteries

50
Q

What are the main blood vessels around the heart?

A

Superior/Inferior Vena Cava
Pulmonary artery
Pulmonary vein
Aorta

51
Q

Blood passage through the heart?

A

Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Right ventricle
Pulmonary valve
Pulmonary arteries
Pulmonary veins
Left atrium
Mitral valve
Left ventricle
Aortic valve
Aorta

52
Q

Signal propagation at the heart?

A

Impulse generated at SA node, Atrium contract

Then to the AV node, pauses

Continues down to the bundle of HIS and divided down the bundle branches, stimulating the ventricles

Muscle fibres depolarise via the purkinje fibres

53
Q

What is the excitation-contraction process in cardiac muscles?

A
  1. Sodium enters the intracellular fluid
  2. Calcium also enters via the L type Ca2+ channel
  3. This triggers more Ca2+ to enter from the Sarcoplasmic reticulum through Ryanodine receptor channels
  4. Thin filament are activatied
  5. Cross bridge cycling, force generation, and sliding filament theory
  6. Ca2+ ATPase pump - ADP generates ATP
  7. Potassium leaves and enters T-tubule lumen
54
Q

What is contractile force dependent on?

A

Contraction of cardiac muscle cells
is dependent on extracellular Ca2+

55
Q

How is tetanic contractions prevented in cardiac muscles?

A

The refractory period of cardiac muscle is dramatically longer than that of skeletal muscle, therefore the sodium channels are closed so another action potential cannot occur.

56
Q

What type of cell is the SA node and why?

A

Pacemaker cells as they can generate their own action potential due to an unstable membrane which is continuously drifting towards threshold

57
Q

How is HR decreased?

A

Parasympathetic ((PS)) nervous system,

Vagus nerves secrete acetylcholine whichbinds to receptros on the SA node

Membrane is hyperpolarised causing slower depolirisation

Causing a slower rhythm/less impulses
= HR decreases

58
Q

How is HR increased?

A

Sympathetic (S) Nervous system,
S fibres - Cardiac nerves release norepinephrine, alongside circulating epinephrine
= SA node stimulated
= membrane to become more polarised
= depolarising drift is faster
= faster rhythm
= Increase HR

59
Q

Parts of ECG and what is occurring at each part?

A

P wave - Atrial activity
QRS - Ventricle activity
ST - Ventricle contraction but no electricity
T - Resetting for next contraction

60
Q

Pressure difference in valves?

A

Tri (between ra-rv) -
Open when ra pressure > rv pressure

Pulmonary (between rv and pa) - Open when rv pressure > pa pressure

Mitral (between La-Lv) -
Open when la pressure > lv pressure

Aortic (between lv and aorta) - open when lv pressure > aorta

61
Q

Anatomy of Arteries?Functions? (5)

A

Adventitia: Provides structural strength

Elastin: Gives vessels mechanical strength and their elastic properties

Smooth muscle: Supplies the vessels with contractile power and regulates the diameter of the lumen.

Endothelium: filtering interface between the blood, It also secretes various vasoactive products.

Pre-capillary sphinchter: Controls blood flow to specific capillary beds selectively.

62
Q

Why is it important to monitor arterial pressure/diameter?

A

They are responsible for altering levels of blood flow to distribute blood around the body to where it is needed.

63
Q

What is Active Hyperami?

A

Increase in blood flow according to needs of a certain tissue

64
Q

What is flow autoregulation?

A

Maintenance of blood flow rather than changing it.
Eg when the driving pressure drops the vessels dilate, and when it increases the vessels constrict.

65
Q

Capillary adaptation?

A

Large SA
Thin = quick diffusion
Spread across the whole body
Slow blood flow to allow time for diffusion

66
Q

Fluid balance at the capillaries?

A

Filtration (movement from the capillaries to the interstitial fluid) takes place when hydrostatic pressure exceeds colloid
osmotic pressure.

Absorption (movement from the interstitial fluid to the capillaries) takes place when colloid osmotic pressure exceeds
hydrostatic pressure.

67
Q

How do veins differ from arteries?(8)

A

Larger
Have valves
Less elastic
Thinner
Less smooth muscle
Larger volume
Closer to surface
More distensible

68
Q

Why are veins blood reservoirs?

A

Contain more than 60% of blood volume with minimal pressure (10 mmHg)

They’re affected by hydrostatic pressure which opposes blood flow

Cardiac output and displacement of blood from the veins to the heart are related via the Frank-Starling mechanism

69
Q

What are two vein pumps?

A

Skeletal - Compression of muscles emptying the blood to the heart

Respiratory - Thoracic cavity pressure increases compressing the veins

70
Q

Function of the lymphatic system?

A

Lymph vessels collect filtered fluid from the interstitial space and return it to the circulating blood volume.
Lymph composition is similar to plasma but with
lower protein content

71
Q

What is Oedema?

A

Accumulation of excess fluid in the interstitial spaces as a result of a failed lymphatic system.

72
Q

What is cardiac output?

A

Volume of blood pumped out of the heart every minute

73
Q

Equation for Cardiac Output?

A

Heart rate x Stroke volume

74
Q

What regulates SV?

A

1) Force at which cells contract which is regulated by
- length tension properties of cardiac muscle cells
- hormonal influence on contractility
2) Arterial pressure against which they have to eject blood

75
Q

Starling’s Law of the Heart?

A

End-diastolic volume can be increased by greater venous return which causes greater stroke volume due to greater stretch on cardiac muscle fibres = increase force of contraction

76
Q

What increases contractility of the cardiac muscles ?

A

Sympathetic nerve activity (norepinephrine) and circulating epinephrine increase the force of contraction, or contractility of cardiac muscles

77
Q

Where is BP highest/lowest?

A

Highest closer to the heart, declines as it moves away

78
Q

Why are elastic properties of artery walls important?

A

They ensure bloods keeps moving even if the heart is in diastole, it also does not exert pressure on the blood.

79
Q

Methods of measuring BP?(6)

A
  • Direct cannulation, 18th century
  • Direct cannulation 21st century
  • Cuff and stethoscope
  • Automated arm cuff monitor
  • Automated wrist cuff monitor
  • Beat to beat blood pressure monitor
80
Q

What is BP measurement dependant on?

A

Sounds produced by arteries as they open and close when occluded by a cuff

81
Q

Factors affecting Blood pressure?

A

Age - loss of elasticity

Higher in foot than head - due to hydrostatic pressure

Gender - Women have lower on average

82
Q

Renal system functions? (5)

A
  1. Regulation of water, inorganic ion balance, acid balance
  2. Removes metabolic waste from blood eg urea, creatinine
  3. Removes foreign chemicals
  4. Gluconeogenesis
  5. Production of hormones/enzymes eg EPO, Renin
83
Q

Structure of the Kidney?

A

Renal Pelvis
Ureter
Renal cortex and medulla
Nephron

84
Q

Structure of Nephron?

A

Renal corpuscle which contains glomerulus and a Renal tubule which forms a cup around the glomerulus called the Bowman’s Capsule

85
Q

What is the tubule of the nephron divided into?

A

Extends from the Bowman’s capsule and sub divides into proximal and distal convoluted tubule, loop of henle and collecting duct.

86
Q

What happens at the collecting duct?

A

Multiple tubules join and and empty into the renal pelvis from which urine flows through the ureters to the bladder.

87
Q

3 Main renal processes?

A

Glomerular filtration
Tubular secretion
Tubular reabsorption

88
Q

Basic process of glomerular filtration?

A

Blood enters the glomerulus through the afferent arteriole and leaves through the efferent arteriole. High blood pressure in the glomerular capillaries forces fluid, electrolytes, small molecules, and waste products (except for larger molecules like blood cells and proteins) out of the blood and into the Bowman’s capsule.

89
Q

What is Tubular secretion?

A

Substances such as hydrogen ion, potassium, drugs, organic anions and more waste that was not filtered properly move
from the peritubular capillaries into the tubular lumen, via diffusion/active transport

90
Q

What are the 4 main functions of Tubular secretion?

A
  1. Disposing of drugs and drugs metabolites
  2. Eliminating substances or end products that have been reabsorbed by passive processes eg urea
  3. Removing excess K+
  4. Controlling blood pH
91
Q

What is Renal clearance ?

A

The amount of a substance filtered per minute, divided
by its plasma concentration

92
Q

Equation for Renal Clearance?

A

Mass of substance excreted per unit / plasma concentration of substance

or

U x V / P (U= Conc of substance in urine , V = flow rate of urine, P + conc of substance in plasma)

93
Q

What is GFR and the factors effecting it?

A

Amount of blood filtered by glomeruli each minute

  1. Capillary permeability
  2. Surface area - size of capillary bed
  3. Hydrostatic pressure driving fluid out of capillaries
  4. Osmotic forces within the capillaries which oppose exit
94
Q

How is GFR measured experimentally? and estimated clinically?

A

Insulin clearance
Creatinine clearance

95
Q

Where sodium and Water lost/gained?

A

Na+
Lost - Sweat
Gain - Ingestion

H2O
Lost - Urine, gastrointestinal tract, evaporation from skin
Gain - Ingestion and metabolism

96
Q

Process of Sodium reabsoprtion?

A
  1. Sodium/Potassium pump allows active transport of Sodium out of cells into Interstitial fluid
  2. Intracellular sodium is low creating a conc gradient
  3. Co-transport/ diffusion back across membrane
97
Q

Process of Water Reabsorption?

A
  1. Water filtered from blood into the glomerulus
  2. Proximal convoluted tubule absorbs around 70%, and water moves back into the bloodstream down conc gradient.
  3. Water is rebasorped in descending limb due to high solute conc, only the descending limb is permeable to water
  4. Water is then regulated in the Distal convoluted tubule and collecing duct dependent on the bodies needs, water moves via aquaporins into the blood stream, and the rest is removed via urine.
98
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Cortical and medullary collecting ducts?

A

Major Function - Fine tuning of water reabsorption, reabsorption of urea
Controlling factor - Vasopressin increases passive reabsorption of water

99
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Distal tubule and cortical collecting ducts?

A

Major Function - Fine tuning of the reabsorption/secretion of remaining solute
Controlling factor - Aldosterone = stimulates Na= reabsorption and K+ secretion, Parathyroid hormones stimulates calcium ion reabsorption

100
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Ascending limb ?

A

Major Function - Reabsorption of NaCl
Controlling factor - Passive water reabsorption, Active transport

101
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Bowman’s capsule/Glomerulus ?

A

Major Function - Forms ultrafiltrate of plasma
Controlling factor - Starling forces

102
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Proximal tubule?

A

Major Function - Bulk reabsorption of solutes and water secretion of solutes
Controlling factor - Active transport of solutes with passive water reabsorption, and parathyroid hormone

103
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Loop of Henle?

A

Major Function - Establishes osmotic gradient, secretes urea
Controlling factor - Passive water reabsorption, Active transport

104
Q

Major function and controlling factor of Descending limb ?

A

Major Function - Bulk water reabsorption
Controlling factor - Passive water reabsorption, Active transport

105
Q

What happens when MAP is increasing/decreasing ?

A

When increasing Baroreceptors fire more,
Parasympathetic nerve activity to the heart increases, outflow to the heart and vasculature increases

When decreasing it is the opposite - explain

106
Q

Mean arterial pressure (MAP) equation?

A

Cardiac output x Total peripheral resistance.

107
Q

What is the response difference with the CV system and Kidneys ?

A

CV responses are in seconds compared to hours.

108
Q

What occurs at the onset of exercise?

A

Central command triggers an initial rapid rise in ventilation and Cardiac Output
Mechanoreceptors in the muscles providing further afferent feedback, both being fine tuned by chemoreceptors, and the CO further by the starling effect

109
Q

What happens when exercise begins?

A

Metaboreflex increases (metabolism)
Sympathetic nerve activity increases = increase in HR and dilation of arterioles to the working muscles, and constriction of veins to redistribute more blood to the muscles.

110
Q

What is the effects of increased endurance training?

A

Increase CO and SV
Decrease resting HR

111
Q

Why are humans known as homeotherms?

A

They maintain their body temperature within a narrow limit, even though the temperature fluctuates throughout the day

112
Q

Why are humans endotherms?

A

They generate their own body heat and do not rely on the energy of sunlight etc.

113
Q

What are the 4 modes of heat exchange?

A

Conduction, Convection, radiation and evaporation

114
Q

What is thermoregulation?

A

Maintaining a constant core body temp

115
Q

What are the physiological heat loss mechanisms?

A

Vasodilation
Sweating

116
Q

What are the mechanisms for heat conservation/production?

A

Shivering
Vasoconstriction
Muscular activity
non-shivering thermogenesis

117
Q

Effects of acclimatization?(6)

A

Sweat more and sooner

Increased blood flow to skin

Have more dilute sweat (conserve electrolytes)

Increased blood volume and stroke volume

Have a lower body core temperature, heart rate, glycogen use and, thus, fatigue

overall improvement of thermoregulation of body temp

Human Physiology (7 decks)

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