Finals packet Flashcards
- Where does glycolysis take place?
Glycolysis takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell
- What goes glycolysis begin with?
It begins with glucose
- At the end of glycolysis, what do you end up with?
You end up with a net of 36 ATP, or 38 ATP total
- What we the overall production of ATP and the net gain of ATP in glycolysis?
Overall there is 38 totally ATP while there is only a net gain of 36
- What is the electron carrier in glycolysis?
NAD+ is the electron carrier in glycolysis
- After glycolysis, if oxygen is present, what step(s) are next?
If there IS oxygen, then next it (what?) goes to the mitochondria (Krebs cycle) to which it then goes on the membrane (Electron Transport Chain) where 32 ATP is produced.
- After glycolysis, if oxygen IS NOT present, what step(s) are next?
If there IS NO oxygen, then in animals glucose transforms into pyruvic acid through lactic acid fermentation (sore feeling, cheese, yogurt, sour cream). In yeast/bacteria, glucose transforms into pyruvic acid through alcoholic fermentation (alcohol, ethyl alcohol).
- Where does cellular respiration take place?
It takes place in the cytoplasm, mitochondria, and on the mitochondria membrane
- What is the equation of cellular respiration?
ATP + C(6)H(12)O(6) + 6O(2) —-> 6CO(2) + H(2)O + energy
- How many ATP’s are produced in cellular respiration?
A net of 36 ATP are produced with a total of 38 ATP being produced
- What are the 2 types of fermentation?
The two types are lactic acid fermentation (found in muscles and microorganisms) and alcoholic fermentation (found in yeast/bacteria).
- What type of fermentation do we go through?
We go through lactic acid fermentation which happens when we work out (it’s the sore feeling in our muscles).
- What type organisms go through the other type?
The only organisms that go through the other cycle are bacteria and yeast (not sure if it is an organism though?).
- What are the electron carriers produced in the Kreb’s cycle?
In the Kreb’s cycle 2 ATP, NADH, and FADH(underscore 2) are produced.
- Where do they go after they leave the Kreb’s cycle?
They go to the electron transport chain after the Kreb’s cycle
- For every 1 pyruvic acid put into the Kreb’s cycle, how many ATP’s are produced?
For every turn of the Kreb’s cycle, 1 ATP is produced
- How do the H+ ions get across the inner membrane in the electron transport chain?
Hydrogen ions get across the inner membrane in the ETC by diffusion
- Explain the process of how ADP is changed into ATP in the electron transport chain?
ADP is turned into ATP with energy from the H+ ions and 1 phosphorous
- How long does lactic acid fermentation supply a runner in a race with energy for?
Only for a few seconds because it doesn’t last long
- What are the four stages of the cell cycle?
The four stages are (interphase), prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase
- What are the three stages of interphase?
The three stages of interphase are G1 (growth), S (DNA synthesis), G2 (more growth, organelles reproduce).
- What occurs in G1
In G1, the cell under goes GROWTH
- What occurs in G2?
In G2, the cell under goes more growth and he organelles reproduce
- What occurs in S?
In S, the cell under goes DNA synthesis
- What are the four stages of mitosis? (Be able to recognize pictures)
The four stages of mitosis are prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase.
- What occurs in prophase?
In prophase, the cell basically under goes preparation for duplication. To be more descriptive, chromatin coils up and forms chromosomes, the nucleolus and nucleus membrane (envelope) fade away which causes the nucleus to disappear, and then the spindle fibers for, between the centrioles.
- What occurs in metaphase?
In metaphase, the chromosomes attach to the spindle fibers at their centrioles and the chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell (equator).
- What occurs in anaphase?
In anaphase, sister chromatids separate by the shortening of the spindle fibers.
- What occurs in telophase? (Tear)
In telophase, the chromatids reach the opposite sides (poles) of the cell, the chromosomes uncoil to reform chromatid, spindle fibers begin to break down, nucleolus reappears, new nuclear membrane forms around each new set of chromosomes, and the plasma membrane begins to separate into 2 new nuclei.
- What occurs in cytokinesis?
In cytokinesis, the cytoplasm divides. In animals, there is a cleavage furrow while in plants there is a cell plate.
- How many cells are produced in mitosis? Are they haploid or diploid?
Two cells are produced in mitosis and they are diploid.
- What is an internal regulator?
An internal regulator is the age or gender of an organism that can affect a gene function
- Give an example of an internal regulator.
An example is baldness
- What is an external regulator?
An external regulator is temperature nutrition, light, chemicals, and infectious agents
- Give an example of an external regulator.
An example is the fur color in rabbits and temperature of environment
- Who was the leading scientist in the introduction of genetics?
Mendel
- Know how to read a Punnett square.
Gotcha (look over it!)
- What is the phenotype ratio?
This ratio has to do with looks and it is - dominant:recessive
- What is the genotype ratio?
This ratio has to deal with the genetics of an organism and its ratio is - HomozygousD:Heterozygous:HomozygousR
- What are the principles of segregation?
The principles of segregation states that members or each pair of genes separate when gametes are formed (meiosis = real)
- What is the probability of flipping heads?
1/2
- What is the probability of flipping heads on the 3rd flip?
1/2
- What is the probability of flipping 3 heads in a row?
1/8
- What is an example of incomplete dominance and codominance?
Incomplete dominance are cases in which one Allen is not completely dominant over another which an example being how a white flower and a red flower may produce a flower that is both red and white. Codominance is when an allele is neither dominant nor recessive with an example being the same two flowers except now they produce an offspring that is pink.
- What is and example of multiple alleles?
Multiple alleles are where they have than two alleles and an example of this would be how you can create a Punnett square crossing two traits (say, eye color and hair color)
- How many chromosomes do we have in our body cells? Sex cells?
We have 46 chromosomes in our body cells and our sex cells only have 23
- What type of cells go through mitosis?
Body cells go through mitosis
- What type of cells go through meiosis?
Sex cells go through meiosis
- Sex cells are also known as…?
Gametes
- How many cells are produced in meiosis? Are the diploid or haploid?
Four haploid cells are produced
- During what stage of meiosis does crossing over occur?
Crossing over occurs during Prophase I
- Why is there not an interphase between Meiosis I and II?
There’s not one because you don’t need to create double the amount of chromosomes
- What is the male sex cell? Female sex cell?
The male sex cell is called sperm while the female sex cells are called eggs.
- What are three parts that make up a nucleotide?
The three parts that make it up are: one sugar molecule, phosphate, and a base (A, G, T, or C)
- What are the 4 nitrogen bases of DNA?
The four bases are: adenine (A), guanine (G), thymine (T), and cytosine (C)
- What is the shape of a double helix?
The shape is double stranded
- Understand the picture shown on page 294.
Okay
- What types of bonds connect the nitrogen bases?
Hydrogen bonds connect them
- What is the process called in which DNA makes an exact copy of itself?
That process is called DNA replication
- What are the 3 main differences between DNA and RNA?
The 3 main difference are: DNA is a double helix while RNA is a single helix, DNA is made with sugar deoxyribose while RNA is made with sugar ribose, and DNA has thymine while RNA has urasil.
- What are the 3 types of RNA?
The three types are: mRNA, tRNA, and rRNA
- What is the job of the messenger RNA?
The mRNA moves genetic information from the nucleus to the cytoplasm of the cell
- What is the job of the ribosomal RNA?
The rRNA move genetic information to the ribosome
- What is the job of the transfer RNA?
The tRNA makes up the protein along with the ribosome in which is called “Protein Synthesis”
- Why does RNA leave the nucleus and not DNA?
RNA leaves the nucleus and not DNA because the RNA code is what is needed to make the proteins
- What occurs during transcription?
During transcription, DNA transfers genetic message to mRNA
- What enzyme is use during transcription?
RNA polymerase is the enzyme used during transcription
- Be able to use the genetic code.
Okay then
- What amino acid does he codon AUG produce?
It produces MET (Methionine)
- What amino acid does the codon CCC produce?
It produces Proline
- What occurs during translation?
During translation, first the mRNA codon transfers message to tRNA (anticodon). Then the rRNA binds together amino acids carried on each tRNA. Lastly, groups of amino acids form a protein.
- What are strung together to form proteins?
Amino acids are strung together to form proteins.
- What needs to leave the nucleus in order for translation to occur?
mRNA needs to leave the nucleus in order for translation to occur
- Where does protein synthesis take place?
It takes place in the ribosome.
- What part of tRNA joins to the codon?
Three nucleotides
- What type of mutation causes the most damage?
Frameshift mutations cause the most damage
- What are the 4 types of chromosomal mutations?
- Substitutions- one base is changed to another
- Insertions- base is inserted (duplications- same letter in a row)
- Deletions- base is deleted
- Translocation- part of one chromosome combines with part of another
- Be able to recognize he 4 mutations shown of pg. 308.
Okay
- What occurs in chromosomal deletion?
In deletion one base is deleted
- What occurs in chromosomal duplication?
In duplication, there is the same letter in a row
- What occurs in chromosomal inversion?
Chromosomal inversion is when the order becomes reversed, ex: ATG -> GTA
- What occurs in chromosomal translocation?
In translocation, part of one chromosome combines with part of another
- What islands did Darwin visit and what were two of the main organisms he studied?
He sailed to the Galápagos Islands and studied finches and tortoises.
- What ship did Darwin sail on?
He sailed on the Beagle
- What did Darwin notice about the organisms on those islands?
He noticed that there were a lot of the similar species
- What does Darwin’s idea of natural selection say?
He says that a) there is survival of he fittest, b) there is a struggle to exsist, and c) those that are best adapted to their environment will survive
- What did Lamark believe?
He believed that a) acquired traits choose what traits are passed on, b) here is a born desire to fit into an environment, and c) if you use a trait it will grow while if you don’t use it, it will shrink or disappear entirely
- Give examples of adaption?
One example is how we adapted to standing upright and another is how, say, rabbits over time developed longer ears
- What were the four lines of evidence Darwin said supported evolution?
Four lines of evidence Darwin used to support evolution were: 1) species change over time, 2) the goal of life was to survive and reproduce, 3) if you fit into the environment you will survive better, 4) changes changes happen over many generations, and 5) change mutations may increase fitness
- What are some example of vestigial structures?
An example of a vestigial structure is our appendix which we don’t use anymore, just like we don’t really use our gallbaldder.
- What percent of organisms that have lived on this planet at one time are currently extinct?
90%
- What 2 categoriesis the geological time line broken into?
It is broken into relative time and absolute time
- What was early earth like?
Early earth only had early life forms such as bacteria and other microorganisms
- What first needed to evolve into prokaryotic cells?
Nuclei needed to evolve first into prokaryotic cells
- What do scientists believe aerobic bacteria evolved into?
Scientists believed that aerobic bacteria evolved into animals
- What do scientists believe photosynthetic bacteria evolved into?
Scientist believed that photosynthetic bacteria evolved into plants
- What percent of earths history occurred in Precambrian Time?
88% of earths history occurred in Precambrian Time
- Where did life exist during the Precambrian Time?
For the most part, all life was in the oceans
- What period is known as the age of the fishes?
That period is the Paleozoic Era
- What era is known as the age of reptiles?
That era is again, Paleozoic
- What era is known as the age of mammals?
That era is the Mesozoic Era
- How long did dinosaurs rule our planet?
They lived for 65 million years
- What occurred at the end of the Paleozoic and Mesozoic Era’s?
An extinction
- What era and period are we currently in?
We are currently in the Cenozoic Era and the Quaternary period
- Why do scientists classify?
They classify so that way they can all have the same naming system which allows them to be universally known
- Who was the person who developed the classification system we use today?
Linnaeus’
- What are the two rules for writing scientific names?
.
- Write the scientific name for modern humans
Homo sapien
- What are the 7 levels of the organization system in order?
Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species
- Describe domain bacteria.
They are PROKARYOTIC, UNICELLULAR, AUTOTROPHS and HETEROTROPHS, that MIGHT HAVE A CELL WALL, with an example of them being the bacteria found in FOOD, dealing with HEALTH, etc.
- Describe domain Eukarya.
They are EUKARYOTES, for the most part all MULTICELLULAR, can be AUTOTROPHS or HETEROTROPHS, can have a CELL WALL or NO CELL WALL, and are all LIVING THINGS
- Describe kingdom protist and list organisms you would find there.
They are EUKARYOTES, MOSTLY UNICELLULAR, both AUTOTROPHS and HETEROTROPHS, can have a CELL WALL (plantlike kind) or NO CELL WALL (animal like kind), with examples of them being ALGAE, AMEBAS, and PARAMECIUM
- Describe kingdom fungi and list organisms you would find there.
They are EUKARYOTES, MOSTLY UNICELLULAR, HETEROTROPHS, have a CELL WALL (made of chitin), with examples of them being MOLDS, MILDEWS, and MUSHROOMS
- Describe kingdom Plantae and list organisms you would find there.
They are EUKARYOTES, MULTICELLULAR, AUTOTROPHS, have a CELL WALL (cellulose-containing), with examples of them being MOSS, FERNS, and FLOWERS (basically all plants)
- Describe the kingdom Animalia and list organisms you would find there.
They are EUKARYOTES, MULTICELLULAR, HETEROTROPHS, have NO CELL WALL, with examples of them being FISH, BIRDS, MAMMALS, REPTILES, and AMPHIBIANS (basically all animals)
- Be able to read a dichotomous key.
Okay
- What is the equation for cellular respiration?
ATP + C(6)H(12)O(6) + 6O(2) —> 6CO(2) + H(2)O + energy
