Finals Flashcards
Study of the individual
Morphogenic Science
are a process that involves gathering data on a single individual
Morphogenic Methods
the dynamic organization within the individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his unique adjustments to his environment
Personality
personality is both ____ and ____; includes both ____ and ____; it is not only is something, but it ____
physical and psychological
overt behaviors and covert thoughts
does something
healthy adults are generally aware of what they are doing and their reasons for doing it
Conscious Motivation
capable of consciously acting on their environment in new and innovative ways and causing their environment to react to them
Proactive Behavior
Structure of Personality
Personal Dispositions
Common Traits
generalized neuropsychic structure with the capacity to render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide consistent forms of adaptive and stylistic behavior
Personal Dispositions
general characteristics
Common Traits
ruling passion that dominates their lives
Cardinal Dispositions
includes 5 to 10 most outstanding characteristics around which a person’s life focuses
Central Dispositions
less conspicuous but far greater in number than central dispositions
Secondary Dispositions
intensely experienced dispositions.
initiate action.
Motivational Dispositions
personal dispositions that are less intensely experienced.
guides action.
how?
Stylistic Dispositions
peculiarly mine characteristics
behaviors and characteristics that people regard as warm, central, and important in their lives.
warm center of personality
Proprium
the explanation for behavior, and one need not look beyond it for hidden or primary causes
Functional Autonomy
the tendency of an impression to leave an influence on subsequent experience
Perseverative Functional Autonomy
the master system of motivation that confers unity on personality which also refers to those self-sustaining motives that are related to the proprium
Propriate Functional Autonomy
stage development
Bodily Self
Self-Identity
Self-Esteem
Extension of Self
Self-Image
Self as rational coper
Propriate Striving
Adulthood
infants become aware of their own existence and distinguish their own bodies from objects in the environment
Bodily Self
their identity remains intact despite the many changes that are taking place
Self-Identity
children learn to take pride in their accomplishments
Self-Esteem
children come to recognize the objects and people that are part of their own world
Extension of Self
children develop actual and idealized images of themselves and their behavior
Self-Image
children begin to apply reason and logic to the solution of everyday problems
Self as rational coper
young people begin to formulate long-range goals and plans
Propriate striving
normal, mature adults are functionally autonomous, independent of childhood motives
Adulthood
source of affection and security
Infant-Mother bond
seeks general laws
Nomothetic Research
peculiar to the single case
Idiographic Research
patterned properties of the whole organism and allows for intrapersonal comparisons
Morphogenic Science
mathematical procedures capable of sifting personality traits from mountains of test data
Factor Analytic Techniques
Eysenck’s factor analytic technique yielded 3 general bipolar factors or types
Extraversion/Introversion
Neuroticism/Stability
Psychoticism/Superego
the Five-Factor Theory often called as
The Big-Five
the Big Five includes
Openness
Conscientiousness
Extraversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
Raymond Cattell used an Inductive Method
Exploratory Factor Analysis
three sources of data
L data
Q data
T data
person’s life record derived from observations made by other people
L data
self-reports obtained from questionnaires and other techniques designed to allow people to make subjective descriptions of themselves
Q data
objective tests which measure performances such as intelligence, speed of responding, and other such activities designed to challenge people’s maximum performance
T data
Cattell divided traits into two:
Common Traits
Unique Traits
shared by many
Common Traits
peculiar to one individual
Unique Traits
Cattell further classified traits into:
Temperament
Motivation
Ability
how a person behaves
temperament
why one behaves
Motivation
how far or how fast one can perform
Ability
the largest and most frequently studied of the normal traits are the
16 Personality Factors Questionnaire (16 PF Scale)
Dimensions of Personality
Extraversion
Neuroticism
Psychoticism
two strongest and most ubiquitous personality traits
Neuroticism
Extraversion
tend to be anxious, temperamental, self-pitying, self-conscious, emotional, and vulnerable to stress-related disorders
People who score high on neuroticism
they are calm, even-tempered, self-satisfied, and unemotional
People who score low on neuroticism
tend to be affectionate, jovial, talkative, joiners, and fun-loving
People who score high on extraversion
likely to be reserved, quiet, loners, passive, and lacking the ability to express strong emotion
low extraversion scores
they are creative, imaginative, curious, and liberal, and have a preference for variety
People who score high on openness
they are typically conventional, down-to-earth, conservative, and lacking in curiosity
People who score low on openness
they are trusting, generous, yielding, acceptant, and good-natured
People who score high on agreeableness
generally suspicious, stingy, unfriendly, irritable, and critical of other people
People who score low on agreeableness
they are hardworking, conscientiousness, punctual. and persevering
People who score high on conscientiousness
tend to be disorganized, negligent, lazy, and aimless and are likely to give up when a project becomes difficult
People who score low on conscientiousness
“we are just a product of a reinforcement of the environment”
Radical Behaviorism
Skinner did not claim that observable behavior is limited to ______. Private behaviors such as thinking, remembering, and anticipating are all observable by the person experiencing them.
External Events
behavior can be best studied without reference to needs, instincts, or motives.
Scientific Behaviorism
permits a scientist to generalize from a simple learning condition to a more complex one.
Interpretation
two kinds of conditioning
Classical
Operant
Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
John Watson
a response is drawn out of the organism by a specific, identifiable stimulus.
Classical Conditioning
a neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus a number of times until it produces conditioned response.
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
B.F. Skinner
a behavior is made more likely to recur when it is immediately reinforced.
Operant Conditioning
reinforcing approximation of the targeted behavior until such time that the organism finally do what we intend them to do.
Shaping
the experimenter or the environment first rewards gross approximations of the behavior, then closer approximations, and finally the desired behavior itself.
Shaping
a response to a similar environment in the absence of previous reinforcements. they react to a new situation in the same manner that they reacted to an earlier one because the two situations possess same identical elements.
Stimulus Generalization
Skinner said “The reinforcement of a response increases the probability of all responses containing the same elements”
Stimulus Generalization
environmental stimuli that are not by nature satisfying but become so because they are associated with such unlearned or primary reinforcers (food, water, sex, or physical comfort)
Conditioned Reinforcers
associated with more than one primary reinforcer
Generalized Reinforcer
schedules of reinforcement
Continuous Schedule
Intermittent Schedules
the organism is reinforced for every response
Continuous Schedule
they produce responses that are more resistant to extinction.
Intermittent Schedule
four basic intermittent schedules
Fixed-Ratio
Variable-Ratio
Fixed-Interval
Variable-Interval
the organism is reinforced intermittently according to the number of responses it makes.
Fixed-Ratio
the organism is reinforced after every nth response
Variable-Ratio
the organism is reinforced for the first response following a designated period of time.
Fixed-Interval
organism is reinforced after the lapse of random or varied periods of time.
Variable-Interval
aka forgetting
Extinction
the tendency of previously acquired response to become progressively weakened upon nonreinforcement.
Extinction
systematically withholds reinforcement of a previously learned response until the probability of that response diminishes to zero.
Operant Extinction
according to Skinner, human behavior is shaped by three forces:
Natural Selection
Cultural Practices
Individual’s history of reinforcement
Inner States:
feelings of love
anxiety or
fear
humans are also aware of their consciousness, of themselves as part of their environment, and of themselves observing that stimuli.
Self-Awareness
the effects of deprivation and satiation and to the corresponding probability that the organism will respond.
Drives
subjective existence of emotions
Emotions
individuals establish groups because they have been rewarded for doing so.
Social Behavior
laws, rules, customs
Social Control
Counteracting Strategies
Escape
Revolt
Passive Resistance
when social control is excessive, people can use these
Counteracting Strategies
people withdraw from the controlling agent
Escape
behave more actively, counterattacking the controlling agent.
Revolt
they are more subtle than those who rebel and more irritating to the controllers than those who rely on escape
Passive Resistance
the conspicuous feature of passive resistance is
Stubbornness
the outstanding characteristic of humans is
Plasticity
humans have flexibility to learn a variety of behaviors in diverse situations.
Plasticity
learning by observing others
Vicarious Learning
includes behavioral, environment, and personal factors
Triadic Reciprocal Causation Model
two important environmental forces in the triadic model
Chance Encounters
Fortuitous Events
humans have the capacity to exercise control over the nature and quality of their lives
Agentic Perspective
people are able to rely on others for goods and services
Proxy Agency
an important component of the triadic reciprocal causation model is
Self-Efficacy
the people’s shared beliefs that they can bring about change.
Collective Efficacy
includes redefining the behavior, disregarding or distorting the consequences of their behavior, dehumanizing or blaming the victims of their behavior, and displacing or diffusing responsibility for their actions
Moral Agency
2 kinds of learning
Observational
Enactive
the core of observational learning
Modeling
involves adding and subtracting from the observed behavior and generalizing from one observation to another
Modeling
four processes that govern observational learning
Attention
Representation
Behavioral Production
Motivation
attend to the model, paying attention to his/her actions
Attention
memorizing the details about the action
Representation
producing the action
Behavioral Production
motivating yourself
Motivation
direct experience by thinking about and evaluating the consequences of their behaviors.
Enactive Learning
human action is a result of an interaction among three variables - environment, behavior, and person (memory, anticipation, planning, and judging)
Triadic Reciprocal Causation
is usually the strongest contributor to performance
Cognition
an unintended meeting of persons unfamiliar to each other
Chance Encounters
an environmental experience that is unexpected and unintended.
Fortuitous Events
humans have the capacity to exercise control over their own lives
Agentic Perspective
the essence of humanness
Human Agency
Bandura believes that people are self-regulating, proactive, self-reflective, and self-organizing, and that they have the power to influence their own actions to produce desired consequences.
Human Agency
an autonomous agent - making decisions that are consistent with their view of self.
Human Agency
high confidence in one’s own actions
Self-Efficacy
people’s belief in their capability to exercise some measure of control over their own functions and over environmental events.
Self-Efficacy
What Contributes to Self-Efficacy?
Mastery Experiences
Social Modeling
Social Persuasion
Physical and Emotional States
internal factor that increases self-efficacy. priori achievements demonstrate our capabilities and strengthen our feelings of self-efficacy.
Mastery Experiences
seeing other people perform successfully - strengthen self-efficacy particularly if the people we observe are similar to us in their abilities.
Social Modeling
“if they can do it, so can I”
Social Modeling
involves simply reminding people that they have the ability to achieve whatever they want to achieve, can enhance self-efficacy
Social Persuasion
the more fear, anxiety, or tension we experience in a given situation, the less we feel able to cope.
Physical and Emotional States
they reactively attempt to reduce the discrepancies between their accomplishments and their goal; but after they close those discrepancies, they proactively set newer and higher goals for themselves.
Self-Regulation
internal factors in self-regulation
Self-Observation
Judgmental Processes
Self-Reaction
judging the worth of our actions on the basis of goals we have set for ourselves; cognitive mediation; the process depends on personal standards, referential performances, valuation of activity, and performance attribution.
Judgmental Processes
depends on our personal standards; either we reward or punish ourselves.
Self-Reaction
self-regulatory influences are not automatic but operate only if they are activated
Selective Activation
by justifying the morality of their actions, they can separate or disengage themselves from the consequences of their behavior.
Disengagement of Internal Control
Overt or Vicarious Modeling
Observe
Covert or Cognitive Modeling
Visualize
Overt or Vicarious Modeling
Visualize
the ultimate goal of social cognitive therapy is
Self-Regulation
cognitive factors help shape how people will react to environmental forces.
Learning Theory
prime determinants of performance
one’s expectations of future events
keys to predicting behavior
cognition
past histories
expectations of the future
cognitive factors
expectancies
subjective perceptions
values
goals
personal standards
Rotter’s Social Learning Theory rests on five basic hypotheses:
human interact with their meaningful environments
human personality is learned
personality has a basic unity
motivation is goal-directed
people are capable of anticipating events
people’s reaction to environmental stimuli depends on the meaning or importance that they attach to an event
humans interact with their meaningful environments
personality can be changed or modified as long as people are capable of learning
human personality is learned
personalities possess relative stability
personality has a basic unity
human behavior lies in people’s expectations that their behaviors are advancing them toward goals.
motivation is goal-directed
define reinforcement as any action, condition, or event which affects the individual’s movement toward a goal
Empirical Law of Effect
in specific situations, behavior is estimated by the
Basic Prediction Formula
basic prediction formula suggests that the potential for a given behavior to occur is a function of the person’s _____ plus the _____
Expectancy
Reinforcement Value
general prediction formula states that need potential is a function of _____ and _____
Freedom of Movement
Need Value
refer to the likelihood that a given behavior will occur in a particular situation
Behavior Potential
person’s expectation of being reinforced
Expectancy
person’s preference for a particular reinforcement
Reinforcement Value
complex pattern of cues that a person perceives during a specific time period
Psychological Situation
set of expectation that can happen after one can make a choice
Generalized Expectancies
any behavior or set of behaviors that people see as moving them in the direction of a goal
Needs
six broad categories of needs:
Recognition-Status
Dominance
Independence
Protection-Dependency
Love and Affection
Physical Comfort
a need complex has three essential components
Need Potential
Freedom of Movement
Need Value
set of behaviors toward a certain goal
Need Potential
expectations that if a person performs a set of behaviors it will be reinforced
Freedom of Movement
how important it is for a person to achieve a goal or need
Need Value
holds that behavior stems from relatively stable personal dispositions and cognitive affective processor interacting with a particular situation
Cognitive-Affective Personality Theory
consistently inconsistent
Consistency Paradox
the situation has a powerful effect on behavior
Person-Situation Interaction
personal factors that can affect behavior
Cognitive-Affective Units
cognitive-affective units include people’s:
Encoding Strategies
Competencies and Self-regulatory Plans
Expectancies and Beliefs
Goals and Values
Affective Responses
their way of construing and categorizing information
Encoding Strategies
what they can do and their strategies for doing it
Competencies and Self-regulatory Plans
perceived consequences of their actions
Expectancies and Beliefs
created by Walter Mischel and Yuichi Shoda
Cognitive-Affective Personality System
accounts for variability across situations as well as stability of behavior within a person
Cognitive-Affective Personality System
people’s belief that they can or cannot control their lives
Locus of Control
the word of another is reliable
Interpersonal Trust
actions that fail to move a person closer to a desired goal
Maladaptive Behavior
deals with the question of how we perceive, evaluate, learn, think, make decisions, and solve problems
Cognitive Approach
this theory attempted to describe all aspects of personality, including its emotional components, strictly in terms of cognitive processes.
Cognitive Theory of Personality
it is a metatheory
Personal Construct Theory
a theory about theories
Metatheory
meanings or interpretations that humans place on events are called
Constructs
different angles/perspectives;
alternative ways of looking at things
Constructive Alternativism
each person creates a set of cognitive construct about the environment;
subjective explanations, interpretations, and prediction on how reality works
Personal Construct Theory
we construct theories by which we try to predict and control the events in our lives
Personal Constructs
unique pattern created by each individual
Construct System
an intellectual hypothesis that we devise and use to interpret or explain life events
Construct
free to revise our constructs with alternatives as needed
Constructive Alternativism
similarities among repeated events
Construction Corollary
individual differences in interpreting events
Individuality Corollary
personal constructs have hierarchy
Organization Corollary
two mutually exclusive alternatives
Dichotomy Corollary
freedom of choice: we choose the alternative for each construct that works best for us
Choice Corollary
our constructs may apply to many situations or people, or they may be limited to a single person or limitation
Range Corollary
we continually test our constructs against life’s experiences to make sure they remain faithful
Experience Corollary
we may modify our constructs as a function of a new experiences
Modulation Corollary
we can believe two contradictory beliefs at the same time without problem
Fragmentation Corollary
similarities among people in interpreting events
Commonality Corollary
we must know our roles; we try to understand how other people think and predict what they will do, and we modify our behavior accordingly.
Sociality Corollary
if you don’t know what’s going on in a person’s mind, ask him; he may tell you
The Interview
how a person perceives himself or herself in relation to other people
Self-Characterization Sketch
the client is asked to list by name the people who have played a significant role in his or her life
Role Construct Repertory Test
the client acts out constructs appropriate for a fictitious person
Fixed Role Therapy
