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final terms Flashcards

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Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

yeast

A

mating types are a and alpha, a will send out a signal and alpha has a specific receptor that will get the signal so they can mate

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2
Q

ligand

A

chemical messenger that is produced and released by one cell and then binds to a receptor for the signal to be interpreted

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3
Q

cell junctions

A

allows adjacent cells to be directly connected and pass signaling molecules

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4
Q

cell-cell recognition

A

one cell wants to pass on a message and it is beside another cell that it can interact with to send the message

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5
Q

paracrine signaling

A

no direct physical contact between cells, cells must be close but they do not have to be in direct contact

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6
Q

synaptic signaling

A

neurons release neurotransmitters that diffuse across a synapse

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7
Q

endocrine signaling

A

hormones, used mostly in animals

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8
Q

3 stages of cell signaling

A
  1. reception, message first reaches the receptor 2. transduction, cell has to alter the language of the message to it is easier to understand 3. response, cell makes a response out of the signal
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9
Q

transmembrane receptors

A

ligands bind to transmembrane cell surface receptor proteins (GPCR and RTK)

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10
Q

g protein coupled receptors GPCR

A

abnormal receptors are associated with disease. GDP makes it inactive, GTP makes it active

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11
Q

g-protein

A

needs to bind to GPCR to make it active. GDP inactive, GTP active

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12
Q

Receptor tyrosine kinases

A

membrane receptors that attach phosphates to tyrosines

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13
Q

binomial nomenclature

A

Carolus Linnaeus. First is genus then species within the genus

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14
Q

monophyletic groups

A

includes common ancestor and all species after it

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15
Q

paraphyletic

A

common ancestor and some of the branched species but not all

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16
Q

polyphyletic

A

does not include the common ancestor. only some of its descendant species

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17
Q

ancestral characters

A

character of a species that it shares with one or more of its ancestors

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18
Q

shared derived characters

A

character that is only unique to that specific species. is not shared with any other species or ancestor

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19
Q

endosymbiosis

A

thought that early mitochondria and protists were just prokaryotes that were living in larger host cells

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20
Q

Pangaea

A

continental drift causing all continents to come together. happened 3 times. reduced shallow water habitat, became colder and drier in the inland, changes ocean circulation leading to global warming

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21
Q

adaptive radiation

A

species branch off from common ancestor early on to adapt to new environments

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22
Q

continental drift

A

earths continents shift around via tectonic plates. happens because of underlying hot mantle, causes islands, mountains and earthquakes

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23
Q

cambrian explosion

A

sudden appearance of fossils that resemble modern phyla during the cambrian period (535-525 million years ago)

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24
Q

stromatolites

A

rock structures with bacteria in between the different layers first evidence of prokaryotes

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25
Q

oxygen revolution

A

because bacteria was letting off so much oxygen it started taking up too much space, prokaryotes started to die off because they have less fitness in oxygen rich environments. 2.1 to 2.7 billion years ago

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26
Q

single celled eukaryotes

A

approx 2.1 billion years ago. endosymbionts that live within a larger host cell

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27
Q

multicellular eukaryotes

A

1.5 billion years ago. shows beginning of evolution

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28
Q

colonization of land

A

fungi, animals and plants begin to colonize the land. 500 million years ago

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29
Q

consequences of pangaea

A

during formation it made inland colder and drier, changed ocean pathways which lead to global warming, less shallow water habitats. during separation it made allopatric speciation happen

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30
Q

permian extinction

A

96% of all species went extinct. happened because of volcanism which lead to less oceanic oxygen which lead to global warming

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31
Q

cretaceous mass extinction

A

because of the meteor that hit earth, 50% of marine animas and many other plants and animals went extinct

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32
Q

consequence of mass extinction

A

paves the way for adaptive radiation, alters the ecological niches and communities that are available

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33
Q

biological species concept

A

group that has potential to interbreed and produce viable offspring

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34
Q

morphological species concept

A

defines a species on its structural features, emphasizes unity

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35
Q

ecological species concept

A

defines a species on where its habitat is. emphasizes disruptive selection

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36
Q

prezygotic barriers

A

barriers that prevent two species from mating or fertilization to complete

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37
Q

habitat isolation

A

two species do not come into contact often because they don’t live near each other

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38
Q

gametic isolation

A

the sperm of one species does not work to fertilize the egg of another species

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39
Q

temporal isolation

A

two species mate at different times (in the day or in the year) so they never mate even if they might come into contact

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40
Q

behavioral isolation

A

mating rituals that are species specific do not mix with other species.

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41
Q

mechanical isolation

A

the physical/morphological differences of the two species do not allow mating

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42
Q

postzygotic barriers

A

telling if the offspring is fertile/viable

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43
Q

allopatric speciation

A

“different country” species that become separated physically somehow so they evolve in different ways

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44
Q

sympatric speciation

A

“same country” species live around the same area but do not mate for some other reason (some type of isolation probably)

45
Q

reinforcement hybrid

A

hybrid does cannot reproduce as well as its parents, reinforcing the prezygotic barriers

46
Q

stabilization hybrid

A

hybrid reproduces better than its parents. prezygotic barriers will decrease. results in 3 different species (both parents and their hybrid child who can continue to make hybrid children)

47
Q

fusion hybrid

A

hybrid reproduces just as well as its parents (not better or worse) creates a fusion between its parents (a new species)

48
Q

punctuated model

A

species change most as they branch from a parent then less overtime

49
Q

gradual model

A

species change from one another gradually over time

50
Q

HER2 receptor

A

overly active in breast cancer. can act without the ligand

51
Q

ligand gated ion channel

A

receptor acts as a gate when it changes shape. will open up for specific ions (na/Ca) through a channel

52
Q

intracellular receptors

A

found in cytosol are hydrophobic and pass through the membrane to activate a receptor

53
Q

second messengers

A

initiates by GPCRs and RTKs small nonprotein ions that diffuse within a cell. Ex. cyclic amp (cAMP)

54
Q

first receptors

A

ligands

55
Q

cholera

A

produces a toxin that modifies the g protein so it produces excess amounts of salt and water will eventually run dry

56
Q

PIP2

A

lipid that forms in association with the membrane. is the substrate to phospholipase

57
Q

fluid mosaic model

A

the cell membrane is a fluid structure with a “mosaic” of proteins

58
Q

testing the fluid membrane theory

A

using fluorescent green stain to stain the membrane, then making a hole within the membrane to see if the green stain begins to cover up that hole FRAP

59
Q

cholesterol

A

fluid that allows the membrane to be more fluid at warmer temperatures and less fluid at colder temperatures

60
Q

integral proteins

A

penetrate the hydrophobic core and get embedded in the membrane. Become transmembrane proteins f they stay on the membrane

61
Q

aquaporins

A

allow water passage through the membrane through a pressure gradient (pressure builds up outside the cell then is released only down this specific passage)

62
Q

passive transport

A

does not need energy to happen, pressure moves down gradient from high to low concentration

63
Q

amplification

A

stimulation of a signal at transduction leads to amplification of signal. happens through enzyme cascades

64
Q

specifity

A

different receptors allow different responses. different types of protein are produced by different types of cells

65
Q

termination

A

signal is terminated is the ligand concentration falls

66
Q

aptopsis

A

programmed cell death. occurs to recycle cells or create the proper shape. happens through the inactivation of a specific protein to allow different enzymes carry out killing the cell

67
Q

ced-9

A

protein that is in a cell that does not allow aptopsis. when inactivated it automatically activates ced-3 and ced-4 so cell death can occur

68
Q

capases

A

main proteases that actually kill the cell

69
Q

alpha helix

A

coil held by hydrogen bonds on every fourth amino acid. part of secondary structure

70
Q

B pleated sheets

A

two polypeptide chains held together by hydrogen bonds. part of secondary structure

71
Q

disulfide bridges

A

when coiling a protein and two cystines come close together their S molecules can bond together

72
Q

hydrophobic interaction

A

when some molecules are hydrophobic, they travel to the center of the protein and hydrophilic molecules can be on the outside. Part of the secondary structure

73
Q

X ray crystallography

A

diffracting x ray beams off a protein to figure out the 3D structure

74
Q

endomembrane system

A

nuclear envelope, ER,, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, vacuoles and plasma membrane

75
Q

endoplasmic reticulum

A

continuous with nuclear envelope and makes up more than half of the membrane

76
Q

smooth er

A

detoxifies drugs, synthesizes lipids, stores calcium ions, does not have ribosomes

77
Q

rough er

A

has ribosomes, synthesizes glycoproteins, is the “membrane factory” makes parts of the membrane

78
Q

rough er stress response

A

happens because there is a clog of proteins that are mis or unfolded

79
Q

short term rough er stress response

A

create more chaperone proteins to help keep the proteins being made moving along

80
Q

long term rough er stress response

A

killing itself

81
Q

golgi apparatus

A

flat membrane sacs that modifies products of the er and is the sorting factory. sorts and packs things that come from the rough er

82
Q

lysosomes

A

digestive compartments with hydrolytic enzymes to digest macromolecules

83
Q

vacuoles

A

derived from er and golgi apparatus to perform other things

84
Q

mitochondria

A

site of cellular respiration, a metabolic process to generate atp with oxygen

85
Q

darwins definition of evolution

A

descent with modification

86
Q

Theodosius Dobzhansky

A

nothing makes sense except in light of evolution

87
Q

largest to smallest category grouping

A

Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species

88
Q

emergent properties

A

emergent from arrangement or interactions of parts within a system. not unique to life

89
Q

smallest protein

A

FMRFamide (4 amino acids long)

90
Q

largest protein

A

Titin protein (38000 amino acids)

91
Q

first law of thermodynamics

A

energy in the universe will remain constant but energy can only be converted, not created

92
Q

isotonic

A

nothing moves in or out of the cell, cell will remain the same

93
Q

hypertonic

A

cell shrivels because water tries to go from inside to outside the cell

94
Q

hypotonic

A

cell will burst because concentration was higher inside the cell and too much water went in the cell and caused it to burst

95
Q

main steps of translation

A
  1. initiation, begins translation. 2. elongation, adds on amino acid pairs 3. termination, finds stop codon and is done translating
96
Q

anticodon

A

complementary tRNA codons to the mRNA codons

97
Q

how many binding sites does trna have and what are they called

A

3 sites, A, P and E site

98
Q

A site in ribosomes

A

holds trna that carries next amino acid onto the chain

99
Q

P site in ribosomes

A

holds trna that has growing polypeptide chain

100
Q

E site in ribosomes

A

exit site where discharges trnas leave the ribosome

101
Q

what enzymes make sure the right amino acids are attached to the right trnas

A

aminoacyl trna synthases there are 20 different types in humans, one for each amino acid.

102
Q

wobble base pairings

A

because there are 61 codons and most proteins only need about 40, there can be a time where there is an unconventional base pairing. when the antiparallel base pairing the first two bases match up fine but the third one isnt normal, it is enough for the first two to be normal and the third one to be unconventional for the base pairing to still work

103
Q

transition mutations

A

the mutation just switched out a amino acid of the same type (pyramidine for pyramidine or purine for purine)

104
Q

transversion mutation

A

mutation switches out amino acid of different type (puring for pyramidine and vice versa)

105
Q

recombinant dna

A

hybrid dna molecule from joining of two or more dna molecules

106
Q

restriction enzyme

A

endonucleases. cuts dna at very specific sequences. after the cut the fragment that is left the ends are called sticky ends, and as long as you use the same endonuclease, you can stick the ends of two different molecules together

107
Q

dna ligase

A

joins the sticky ends together

108
Q

how do you know if the plasmid has actually taken up the vector

A

using a amicillin to grow the bacteria and also injecting the plasmids with ampicilin resistant, if the cell dies, the plasmid did not actually take up the vector, but if it lives, you can tell that the plasmid has taken up the vector

109
Q

polymerase chain reaction (PCR) test

A
  1. dna is heated to release double helix 2. primer is added and binds to specific parts of dna that is to be amplified, solution is cooled 3. heat protectant enzyme is added and solution is heated again to hotter than before 4. dna is amplified many times until you can tell the answer

cells/genetics/evolution (4 decks)

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