FINAL TERM 5,6,7-PDF Flashcards
group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package and transport lipids and proteins
endomembrane system
the endomembrane does not include _________, ___________. ____________
mitochondria, chloroplast, or peroxisome
plays a key role in the modification of proteins and the synthesis of lipids.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
the discs and tubules of the ER are hollow, and the space inside is called ___________
lumen
gets its name from the bumpy ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface. they feed the newly forming protein chains into the lumen.
rough endoplasmic reticulum
small spheres of membrane that are used for transport, and shipped to the Golgi apparatus.
vesicles
continuous with the rough ER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface
smooth endoplasmic reticulum
Functions of smooth ER
- detoxification of medications and poisons
- storage of calcium ions
exit site for vesicles budding off from the rough ER and are called _________
transitional ER
the sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution takes place in the __________
golgi apparatus
the receiving side of the golgi apparatus is called ________ and the opposite side is called the _________
cis face, trans face
organelle that contains digestive enzymes and acts as the organelle-recycling facility of an animal cell
lysosome
In a process known as _________, a section of the macrophage’s plasma membrane invaginates- folds inward- to engulf a pathogen
phagocytosis
the invaginated section, with the pathogen inside, pinches off from the plasma membrane to form a structure called ____________
phagosome
plant cells are unique because they have a lysosome-like organelle called _________
vacuole
it houses enzymes involved in oxidation reactions, which produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product
peroxisome
cells must continually convert ADP molecules back into ATP molecules. This process is known as _________
cellular respiration
physical process that allows animals and humans to come into contact with gases in the air
breathing
raw material that provides the energy for your body to function
food
________ releases only small amount of energy
glycolysis
two pathways that release a lot of energy if oxygen is present
krebs cycle and electron transport chain
if oxygen is absent, glycolysis is followed by a different pathway
Alcoholic fermentation or lactic acid fermentation
it comes from the greek word glucose which means sweet and latin lysis which means process of loosening or decomposing. Thus, ___________ means “breaking glucose”
glycolysis
the reactions that extract energy from molecule like glucose are called ________
catabolic reactions
a small molecule that powers reactions in the cell
adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
phosphate group is transferred from a pathway intermediate straight to ADP, a process known as ___________
substrate-level phosphorylation
electrons from glucose are transferred to small molecules known as ___________
electron carriers
When the H+ flow back down their gradient, they pass through an enzyme called ___________ driving synthesis of ATP. This process is known as ___________.
ATP synthase, oxidative phosphorylation
it also called electron shuttles, they are small organic molecules that play key roles in cellular respiration
electron carriers
two types of electron carriers that are particularly important in cellular respiration
NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)
the gain or lose of electrons are example
of a class of reactions called ____________
redox reactions
when a molecule loses electrons, it is _________
oxidized
if the molecule gains electrons, it is _________
reduced
why does a cell go to the trouble of ripping electrons off of glucose, transferring them to electron carriers, and passing them through an electron transport chain in a long series of redox reaction?
to get energy out of that glucose molecule
four stages of cellular respiration
glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation
a six-carbon sugar undergoes a series of chemical transformations. In the end, it gets converted into two molecules of pyruvate, a three- carbon organic molecule. ATP is made, and NAD+ is converted to NADH.
Glycolysis
Each pyruvate from glycolysis goes into the mitochondrial matrix, the innermost compartment of mitochondria. It is converted into a two-carbon molecule bound to Coenzyme A, known as acetyl CoA. Carbon dioxide is released and NADH is generated.
Pyruvate oxidation
The acetyl CoA made in the last step combines with a four-carbon molecule and goes through a cycle of reactions, ultimately regenerating the four-carbon starting molecule. ATP, NADH2 and FADH2 are produces, and carbon dioxide is released.
Citric Acid Cycle
Glycolysis can take place without oxygen in a process called ___________
Fermentation
What stages of cellular respiration only uses oxygen directly?
oxidative phosphorylation
Series of proteins and organic molecules found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.
Electron Transport Chain
Reduced electron carriers from other steps of cellular respiration transfer their electrons to molecules near the beginning of the transport chain. In the process, they turn back into NAD+ and FAD, which can be reused in other steps of cellular respiration.
Delivery of Electrons by NADH and FADH2
As electrons are passed down the chain, they move from a higher to a lower energy level, releasing energy. Some of the energy is used to pump H+ ions, moving them out of the matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping establishes an electrochemical gradient.
Electron transfer and proton pumping
At the end of the electron transport chain, electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen which splits in half and takes up H+ to form water.
Splitting of oxygen to form water
As H+ ions flow down their gradient and back into the matrix, they pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase, which harness the flow of protons to synthesize ATP.
Gradient-driven synthesis of ATP
This is very good at donating electrons in redox reactions, so it can transfer its electrons directly to complex I, turning back into NAD+.
NADH
This is not as good at donating electrons as NADH, so it cannot transfer its electrons to complex I.
FADH2
mobile electron carrier
ubiquinone (Q)
It carries the electrons to complex IV, where final batch of H+ ions is pumped across the membrane. And this is also a mobile carrier.
cytochrome C (cyt C)
What does electron transport chain do for the cell?
- regenerates electron carriers
- makes a proton gradient
The gradient is sometimes called the _____________, and you can think as a form of stored energy , kind of like a battery.
proton-motive force
membrane-spanning protein
ATP synthase
- Energy from a proton gradient is used to make ATP, is called ___________.
- it can also refer to any process in which energy stored in a proton gradient is used to work.
chemiosmosis
What would happen to the energy stored in the proton gradient if it weren’t used to synthesize ATP or do other cellular work?
It would be released as heat, and interestingly enough, some types of cells deliberately use the proton gradient for heat generation rather than ATP synthesis.
In the brown fat cells, ______________ are produced and inserted into the inner mitochondrial membrane
uncoupling proteins
How many ATP do we get per glucose in cellular respiration?
maximum ATP yield for a molecule of glucose is around 30-32 ATP
Where does the figure of 30-32 ATP come from?
two net ATP from glycolysis, two ATP from citric acid cycle, and the remaining ATP come from oxidative phosphorylation
Similar to aerobic cellular respiration in that electrons extracted from a fuel molecule are passed through an electron transport chain, driving ATP text synthesis
Anaerobic cellular respiration
What kinds of organisms use anaerobic cellular respiration?
Some prokaryotes-bacteria and archaea- that live in low-oxygen environments
Another anaerobic pathway for breaking down glucose, one that’s performed by many types of organisms and cells
Fermentation
NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate, generating lactate as a byproduct.
Lactic acid fermentation
NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of pyruvate, producing ethanol.
Alcohol fermentation
A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and released in as carbon dioxide, producing a two-carbon molecule called _____________
acetaldehyde
What are the two steps of alcohol fermentation?
Glycolysis and NADH regeneration
Process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of sugars.
Photosynthesis
Carbon from carbon dioxide- inorganic carbon- can be incorporated into organic molecules; this process is called _________, and the carbon in organic molecules is also known as _____________.
carbon fixation, fixed carbon
These organisms produced their own food- that is, fix their own carbon using light energy
photoautotrophs
They cannot convert carbon dioxide to organic compounds
Heterotrophs
most common autotrophs in terrestrial land ecosystem
Plants
They are arranged in piles like stacks of pancakes that are known as ___________
Grana
They are disc-like structure within each chloroplast
Thylakoid
They are green-colored pigments that each thylakoid contains
Chlorophylls
The fluid-filled space around the grana
Stroma
The space inside the thylakoid discs known as ___________
thylakoid space
Two stages of Photosynthesis
Light dependent reaction and Calvin cycle
It take place in the thylakoid membrane and require a continuous supply of light energy
Light dependent reaction
This is also called light dependent reaction, takes place in the stroma and does not directly require light. Instead it uses ATP and from the light-dependent reaction to fix carbon dioxide and produce three-carbon sugars
calvin cycle
Transgenic technology and gene expression have been widely used in:
- agricultural production
- improving agricultural yields and quality
- reducing loss that various biotic and abiotic stress caused
- promoting utilization of germplasm resource
- improving breeding efficiency
- strengthening the regulation of plant growth
When the changes of external environment caused the advance or delay of phenology, the expression of related genes at the molecular level invariably precedes the emergence of phenological phenomenon, therefore, we can timely and reasonable judge and implement farming operation
Gene information describing the crop phenology
Crops sometimes suffer various biotic or abiotic stresses in agricultural production, resulting in reduction in agronomical yield, falling off in quality, and will affect agricultural production output.
Prediction of Crop Growth Status Under Stress
Modern DNA technology makes it possible for people to understand the effect of fertilization promoting plant growth and development at the molecular level.
Evaluation of the effect of fertilizers
They are used in establishment of core collection in genebank. This is to prioritize varieties to be conserved also to eliminate duplicates in the collections.
DNA fingerprinting
