FINAL TERM 5,6,7-PDF Flashcards by Ken Valdellana

group of membranes and organelles in eukaryotic cells that works together to modify, package and transport lipids and proteins

endomembrane system

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

the endomembrane does not include _________, ___________. ____________

mitochondria, chloroplast, or peroxisome

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

plays a key role in the modification of proteins and the synthesis of lipids.

Endoplasmic Reticulum

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

the discs and tubules of the ER are hollow, and the space inside is called ___________

lumen

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

gets its name from the bumpy ribosomes attached to its cytoplasmic surface. they feed the newly forming protein chains into the lumen.

rough endoplasmic reticulum

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

small spheres of membrane that are used for transport, and shipped to the Golgi apparatus.

vesicles

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

continuous with the rough ER but has few or no ribosomes on its cytoplasmic surface

smooth endoplasmic reticulum

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Functions of smooth ER

detoxification of medications and poisons
storage of calcium ions

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

exit site for vesicles budding off from the rough ER and are called _________

transitional ER

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

the sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution takes place in the __________

golgi apparatus

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

the receiving side of the golgi apparatus is called ________ and the opposite side is called the _________

cis face, trans face

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

organelle that contains digestive enzymes and acts as the organelle-recycling facility of an animal cell

lysosome

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

In a process known as _________, a section of the macrophage’s plasma membrane invaginates- folds inward- to engulf a pathogen

phagocytosis

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

the invaginated section, with the pathogen inside, pinches off from the plasma membrane to form a structure called ____________

phagosome

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

plant cells are unique because they have a lysosome-like organelle called _________

vacuole

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

it houses enzymes involved in oxidation reactions, which produce hydrogen peroxide as a by-product

peroxisome

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

cells must continually convert ADP molecules back into ATP molecules. This process is known as _________

cellular respiration

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

physical process that allows animals and humans to come into contact with gases in the air

breathing

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

raw material that provides the energy for your body to function

food

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

________ releases only small amount of energy

glycolysis

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

two pathways that release a lot of energy if oxygen is present

krebs cycle and electron transport chain

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

if oxygen is absent, glycolysis is followed by a different pathway

Alcoholic fermentation or lactic acid fermentation

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

it comes from the greek word glucose which means sweet and latin lysis which means process of loosening or decomposing. Thus, ___________ means “breaking glucose”

glycolysis

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

the reactions that extract energy from molecule like glucose are called ________

catabolic reactions

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

a small molecule that powers reactions in the cell

adenosine triphosphate (ATP)

phosphate group is transferred from a pathway intermediate straight to ADP, a process known as ___________

substrate-level phosphorylation

electrons from glucose are transferred to small molecules known as ___________

electron carriers

When the H+ flow back down their gradient, they pass through an enzyme called ___________ driving synthesis of ATP. This process is known as ___________.

ATP synthase, oxidative phosphorylation

it also called electron shuttles, they are small organic molecules that play key roles in cellular respiration

electron carriers

two types of electron carriers that are particularly important in cellular respiration

NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide) and FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide)

the gain or lose of electrons are example of a class of reactions called ____________

redox reactions

when a molecule loses electrons, it is _________

oxidized

if the molecule gains electrons, it is _________

reduced

why does a cell go to the trouble of ripping electrons off of glucose, transferring them to electron carriers, and passing them through an electron transport chain in a long series of redox reaction?

to get energy out of that glucose molecule

four stages of cellular respiration

glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, citric acid cycle, oxidative phosphorylation

a six-carbon sugar undergoes a series of chemical transformations. In the end, it gets converted into two molecules of pyruvate, a three- carbon organic molecule. ATP is made, and NAD+ is converted to NADH.

Glycolysis

Each pyruvate from glycolysis goes into the mitochondrial matrix, the innermost compartment of mitochondria. It is converted into a two-carbon molecule bound to Coenzyme A, known as acetyl CoA. Carbon dioxide is released and NADH is generated.

Pyruvate oxidation

The acetyl CoA made in the last step combines with a four-carbon molecule and goes through a cycle of reactions, ultimately regenerating the four-carbon starting molecule. ATP, NADH2 and FADH2 are produces, and carbon dioxide is released.

Citric Acid Cycle

Glycolysis can take place without oxygen in a process called ___________

Fermentation

What stages of cellular respiration only uses oxygen directly?

oxidative phosphorylation

Series of proteins and organic molecules found in the inner membrane of the mitochondria.

Electron Transport Chain

Reduced electron carriers from other steps of cellular respiration transfer their electrons to molecules near the beginning of the transport chain. In the process, they turn back into NAD+ and FAD, which can be reused in other steps of cellular respiration.

Delivery of Electrons by NADH and FADH2

As electrons are passed down the chain, they move from a higher to a lower energy level, releasing energy. Some of the energy is used to pump H+ ions, moving them out of the matrix and into the intermembrane space. This pumping establishes an electrochemical gradient.

Electron transfer and proton pumping

At the end of the electron transport chain, electrons are transferred to molecular oxygen which splits in half and takes up H+ to form water.

Splitting of oxygen to form water

As H+ ions flow down their gradient and back into the matrix, they pass through an enzyme called ATP synthase, which harness the flow of protons to synthesize ATP.

Gradient-driven synthesis of ATP

This is very good at donating electrons in redox reactions, so it can transfer its electrons directly to complex I, turning back into NAD+.

NADH

This is not as good at donating electrons as NADH, so it cannot transfer its electrons to complex I.

FADH2

mobile electron carrier

ubiquinone (Q)

It carries the electrons to complex IV, where final batch of H+ ions is pumped across the membrane. And this is also a mobile carrier.

cytochrome C (cyt C)

What does electron transport chain do for the cell?

- regenerates electron carriers - makes a proton gradient

The gradient is sometimes called the _____________, and you can think as a form of stored energy , kind of like a battery.

proton-motive force

membrane-spanning protein

ATP synthase

- Energy from a proton gradient is used to make ATP, is called ___________. - it can also refer to any process in which energy stored in a proton gradient is used to work.

chemiosmosis

What would happen to the energy stored in the proton gradient if it weren't used to synthesize ATP or do other cellular work?

It would be released as heat, and interestingly enough, some types of cells deliberately use the proton gradient for heat generation rather than ATP synthesis.

In the brown fat cells, ______________ are produced and inserted into the inner mitochondrial membrane

uncoupling proteins

How many ATP do we get per glucose in cellular respiration?

maximum ATP yield for a molecule of glucose is around 30-32 ATP

Where does the figure of 30-32 ATP come from?

two net ATP from glycolysis, two ATP from citric acid cycle, and the remaining ATP come from oxidative phosphorylation

Similar to aerobic cellular respiration in that electrons extracted from a fuel molecule are passed through an electron transport chain, driving ATP text synthesis

Anaerobic cellular respiration

What kinds of organisms use anaerobic cellular respiration?

Some prokaryotes-bacteria and archaea- that live in low-oxygen environments

Another anaerobic pathway for breaking down glucose, one that's performed by many types of organisms and cells

Fermentation

NADH transfers its electrons directly to pyruvate, generating lactate as a byproduct.

Lactic acid fermentation

NADH donates its electrons to a derivative of pyruvate, producing ethanol.

Alcohol fermentation

A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvate and released in as carbon dioxide, producing a two-carbon molecule called _____________

acetaldehyde

What are the two steps of alcohol fermentation?

Glycolysis and NADH regeneration

Process in which light energy is converted to chemical energy in the form of sugars.

Photosynthesis

Carbon from carbon dioxide- inorganic carbon- can be incorporated into organic molecules; this process is called _________, and the carbon in organic molecules is also known as _____________.

carbon fixation, fixed carbon

These organisms produced their own food- that is, fix their own carbon using light energy

photoautotrophs

They cannot convert carbon dioxide to organic compounds

Heterotrophs

most common autotrophs in terrestrial land ecosystem

Plants

They are arranged in piles like stacks of pancakes that are known as ___________

Grana

They are disc-like structure within each chloroplast

Thylakoid

They are green-colored pigments that each thylakoid contains

Chlorophylls

The fluid-filled space around the grana

Stroma

The space inside the thylakoid discs known as ___________

thylakoid space

Two stages of Photosynthesis

Light dependent reaction and Calvin cycle

It take place in the thylakoid membrane and require a continuous supply of light energy

Light dependent reaction

This is also called light dependent reaction, takes place in the stroma and does not directly require light. Instead it uses ATP and from the light-dependent reaction to fix carbon dioxide and produce three-carbon sugars

calvin cycle

Transgenic technology and gene expression have been widely used in:

- agricultural production - improving agricultural yields and quality - reducing loss that various biotic and abiotic stress caused - promoting utilization of germplasm resource - improving breeding efficiency - strengthening the regulation of plant growth

When the changes of external environment caused the advance or delay of phenology, the expression of related genes at the molecular level invariably precedes the emergence of phenological phenomenon, therefore, we can timely and reasonable judge and implement farming operation

Gene information describing the crop phenology

Crops sometimes suffer various biotic or abiotic stresses in agricultural production, resulting in reduction in agronomical yield, falling off in quality, and will affect agricultural production output.

Prediction of Crop Growth Status Under Stress

Modern DNA technology makes it possible for people to understand the effect of fertilization promoting plant growth and development at the molecular level.

Evaluation of the effect of fertilizers

They are used in establishment of core collection in genebank. This is to prioritize varieties to be conserved also to eliminate duplicates in the collections.

DNA fingerprinting