FINAL REVISION Flashcards
Details of oxygenic photoautotrophs
photosynthesise → prod O biproduct
e.g. cyanobacteria + algae
Outline features of sexual reproduction in fungi
process varies dep on species
maj time in hap phase
3 stages = plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis
What are the four possible stages of respiration in animals?
- breathing
- gas exchange
- circulation
- cellular resp
not all animals use all 4
Features of trachea
- system of tubes branching across body w/ openings (spiracles) → can open/close
- some insects use muscle contractions or extended tracheal branches to ventilate tracheal system
- sep from circ system
How do stomata facilitate respiration?
open/close to allow gas exchange dep on environ factors - also dets stomata density/aperture
Name three of the key adaptations land plants have evolved.
- roots to extract water + dissolved nutrients from soil
- vascular tissue for transp water + nutrients
- diversity of leaf types + size for PS
What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration?
aer resp uses O to extract E from food - anaer uses diff compound e.g. nitrate, sulfur instead
How have plant roots adapted to meet respiration needs?
- aerial roots (pneumatophores)
- aerenchyma = sml air pockets w/in plant tissue → enabled oxygen flow from exposed to anoxic/waterlogged portion
Why are the largest algae extremely thin?
allows nutrients to pass easily thru cell walls
What features of roots make them so important for land plants?
- facilitate nutrient + water uptake from soil
- provide structural support + anchorage
- synthesise plant hormones
- house nutritional reserves
What are the differences between excretion, elimination, and respiration?
excret = removal of bodily waste products vs elim = removal of unabsorbed food that never part of body vs resp = exchange of gasses
Why do larger species require more complex excretory mechanisms?
need more efficient/resilient system than relying on passive forms (diff + osmo)
Describe the process of exocytosis
process in which vesicles fuse w cell membrane to release contents outside the cell
What are the three broad measures of excretion in plants?
- transpiration
- storage
- diffusion
Why is N one of the common waste products excreted?
all heterotrophic animals req protein → bc protein prod high conc of N when metabolised → lots of N needs to be excreted
Excretory products that are composed of N.
ammonia, urea, uric acid, guanine
Name three groups that use cilia for locomotion (at some stage in their lives).
slugs, snails, worms
How do Cnidarians and molluscs move?
via propulsion
Name two differences between cartilaginous and bony fish.
- buoyancy mechanism - cart fish have lg liver filled w low-density oil vs bony fish have swim bladder
- support mechanism - cart fish have pectoral fins that prov dynamicm lift vs bony fish have rays or lobes that support weight
Why are archosaurs polyphyletic?
bc both birds + reptiles (multi phyla) evolved from common ancestor
When does adaptive radiation occur?
new environ niche AND/OR absence of comp
Why are we interested in understanding origination and mass extinction rates?
r/ship bw orig + ME rate determines if species is diversifying + ID adaptive radiations + mass extinctions
What is the evidence that we are heading for a sixth mass extinction?
ext rates higher than background ext rates - Ceballos et al. 2015
extinction rates approaching level of ‘big five’ ME events- Barnosky et al. 2011
Details of anoxic photoautotrophs
- use H2S/org mols = electron source
- nhave bacteriachorophylls X chloroplasts
live in harsh environs e.g. hot springs → imp for nutrient recycling
How do insects respirate?
O2 diff thru trachea
Label an insect’s mouthpart
Image 7
mx → manipulate
md → bite, cut
lb → store
lr → hold
How does population structure relate to evolution?
physical composition + social organisation of orgs det by mating systems (driver of evol bc sexual selection)
Selection acts on _ alleles faster than _ alleles.
Dominant alleles are _ fixed but recession alleles…
- dom / rec
- never / can be fixed (never fade from pop)
Compare assortive and disassortive mating
assortive (pos assortive) mating
mate w indiv w same alleles = ‘like w like’
X change to allele freq
genotypic iso → phenotypic iso → w selection can cause speciation
e.g. Olivella biplicata - lg animals live further up shoreline than smler animals → mate w similar size orgs
e.g. primates
disassortive (neg assortive) mating
mate w indiv w diff alleles - opp attract
outcome = novel genotypes → maintains genotypic variation w/in pop
e.g. wolves
Describe mating behaviours in primates
- outcome: genotypic dilution
- promiscuity
- outcome: genotypic differentiation
- monogamy
- polyandry
- polygyny
Two events that result in lower genetic diversity
- bottleneck event
- founder event
What are the long-term impacts of a genetic bottleneck?
- allele fixation
- inc homozygosity
e.g. c heetah
Provide two examples of how small mutations can have a significant impact
- sickle cell anaemia (point mutation)
- teosinte to corn (point mutation)
Equation for change in populational allelic composition due to migration
Δp=m(x-p)
m = mig rate
x = freq of allele in migrants
p = freq of allele in residents
3 types of reproductive barriers
- pre-mating e.g. geog
- pre-zygotic e.g. mating times, eco diff
- post-zygotic e.g. fertilised egg/offsrping inviable
What type of reproductive barriers result in allopatric speciation?
pre-mating
What types of reproductive barriers result in sympatric speciation?
pre-zyg
post-zyg
Genomic analysis involves…
collecting samples/recording phenotypes
creating libraries + sequencing
investig gene loci/entire genome
ID SNPs + other areas of genetic variation
Genome sequencing enhances…
our understanding of micro and macroevol e.g.
Types of GWASs
- med research
- evol bio
- ag - traits of econ value
Random mating means…
pop structure absent + mating occurs in prop w genotype freqs
insig p value when 1df
p>0.5
metabolic web
feeding, assimilition (dig), growth, maintenance, devt + reprod
Growth curves depend on…
metabolic rate across life span - diff for diff spp
e.g. guppy → M=W^(2/3) VS drosophila → MW^1 VS snail → M=W^(3/4)
How is climate change impacting biodiversity in tropical areas?
generalists tend to live in high/low latitudinal areas vs specialisists live in tropics bc abundnace of resources = inc biodiv
h/e CC has disprop delet impact on tropical species bc forced to endure subopt cond → extinction of one spp → maj ramifications for delicate ecosystem - more prone to collapse bc specialisation
List the six sensory modalities that provide organisms with information
chemical
electricity
light
magnetic
mechanical
sound
Outline chemical modality
oldest
most taxonomically widespread
relies on phys interaction bw odour + receptor
Outline mechanical modality
vibrations through substrate e.g. silk
locate + det size of prey
e.g. spiders
List prey defence adaptations and their matching predator counter-adaptations
- camo → improve sensory acuity
- mimicry → improve sensory acuity
- early pred detection → camo, faster
- active defence (chem, phys) → de-activation/de-toxification capacity, inc armaments
Degree of egg mimicry is higher in species with…
higher host rejection rates - evol arms race
How do signals and cues play a role in sexual selection?
mating calls/displays
→ selection favours what Darwin called ‘organs of sense’ = attractive traits → more likely to reprod successful + pass to offspring
List the features of eusocial insects
- co-op care for young
- sterile castes → nest maintenance + care for young
- overlapping gens
How is the life cycle defined?
according to length of gen (several, annual, perennial) AND # reprod events/yr (interoparous vs semelparous)
Outline the three types of survivorship curves
Type I = log curve → most indiv die late e.g. elephants
Type II = linear slope → indiv die at uniform rate e.g. squirrels
Type III = neg exponential curve → most indiv die @ young age e.g. butterflies
What characterises population growth, decline and stability?
stable → R=1
growth → R>1
decl → R<1
Logistic growth equation
Image 4
What are the two types of dispersal?
natal disp - mvmt from birthplace to breeding place
breeding disp - change of breeding site
What are the limitaions of measuring dispersal via marking and observation?
observation effort
gaps in data
X track long dist mvmt
What are the pros/cons of measuring dispersal via geotrackers?
pros - lightweight
cons - limited accuracy bc relies on assumption that animal is in same spot @ sunrise/set - X acct for mvmt w/in day
How can we measure dispersal using intrinstic markers?
- measure stable isotopes - chemical composition reflects environ/diet
- genetic markers reveal where animal was born
- parasites = clues abt locations visited
What are the five categories of metapopulation spatial dynamics?
classic
- mainland-island (source-sink)
- patchy pop
- non-equilibrium (extinction w/out recol - often caused by habitat fragmentation by humans)
- mixtures
What characterises a ‘classic’ metapopulation?
frequent extinction and recolonisation in habitat patches
At the regional scale, what two factors drive metapopulation dynamics?
extinction + recol
Do metapopulations arise in natural or in transformed habitats?
transformed - habitat patches often arise from habitat fragmentation
What factors influence how prone a population is to extinction and recolonisation?
size of terr + lvl connectivity
Pros/cons and characteristics of early reprod strategy
characteristics: short-lived + sml body size bc early E invested into reprod, X growth
pros: reduces risk of X reprod at all
cons: lim ability to prov parental care bc short life cycle → dec prob of survival
Most perennial plants are…
iteroparous
Example of an semelparous Australian mammal
monotremes
Outline the characteristics of micro- and macro-parasites
micro:
sml + intra-cell
multiply rapidly w/in host
transmitted dir
v numerous - viruses, bacteria, protozoa
e.g. covid (virus) or Plasmodium falciparum (protozoa) → colonises human RBCs - mosquitos = vectors
macro:
grow on/in body cavities
reprod by releasing infectious stages into environ - poss col same host as parent
rarely complete life cycle w/in one host
e.g. helminths, nematode worms, lice, fleas, tapeworms
Outline the differen ways parasites are transmitted
- direct e.g. smallpox
- trophic
- vector
parasite strategies
- castration
- brood parasitism e.g. cuckoo
- micropred e.g. fleas
- parasitoids - kill host
Definition and characteristics of epidemics
Refers to a rapid change in disease prevalence within a population.
- disappear from pop for period
- wave of infection
- mass mort
- rapid inc pop growth rate after event
Definition and characteristics of endemic infections
Refers to diseases that persist in a population for a prolonged period of time
- suppresses pop #
- almost never causes extinct but can inc vulnerablility
When is culling used to prevent the spread of disease
when transmission is density depo
What are three strategies for disease prevention and control of microparasites?
culling (infected orgs/vectors)
behav modif incl quarantine/soc dist
vax e.g. measles
host responses to parasites
tolerance or resistance
Low genetic diversity can cause extinction due to…
the allee effect -> inbreeding depression
What are the key threats to threatened species globally? How do they differ from threats to Australian species and why?
global threats = habitat loss + overexploitation
Aus threats = invasive spp + changes in habitat bc historic genetic iso of Aus spp → high lvls endemism + specialisation → Aus spp X well adapted to cope w novel spp/environs
Three types of conservation interventions
- threat reduction e.g. fences to keep out pred
- pop boosting e.g. captive breeding
- genetic rescue e.g. MPP
How has volcanism aided biological productivity in Australia
inc nutrient-density of soil → inc fertility
What is alpha diversity?
measure of a local eco comm according to its richness (# diff spp), evenness (relative abundnace of spp w/in comm) or both
What is beta diversity?
extant of change in comm composition/degree of diff across region
What is resource partitioning?
when allopatric spp changes morphology (size/shape - char displacement) OR behaviour (nocturnal/diurnal) → dec comp
e.g. alloptatric pops of Hydrobia (mud snails) = similar sizes vs sympatric pops H. ulvae is consistantly larger than H. ventrosa (Knox et al.)
Outline two objective methods of classifying community patterns in space
- data-based pattern analysis
- assoc (what spp commonly occur together)
- classif
- ordination (what specific environ cond are assoc w certain spp) OR cluster graph??
- mapping
- classify spp
- then model r/ship bw spp → predict across space (map)
Draw the parasitic life cycle
Image 5
Consequences of introduced species herbivory on Australian vegetation
- change veg comp/structure
- dec plant spp richness
sub-webs include
parasites
Scales for the study of interspecific interactions
- temporal i.e. history of spp interaction
- geog i.e. bogong moth x MPP
- morphometric e.g. krill x humpback whale
Types of mutualistic relationships
specific = bw 2 spp
diffuse = bw multi spp
Outline mycorrhizae
- fungi col plant roots
- 80% plant spp
- mutualistic bc F supplies water + nutrients - P supplies PT prod (sugars)
outcomes: - inc P resistance to path
- est mycorrhizal;l networks -> facilitate comm bw plants
e.g. of antogonistic co-ev
toxic newts x garter snakes
Factors that influence a species’ vulnerability to introduced species
size + habitat
Threats to baw baw frog + conservation interventions
CC + intro paths
captive breeding
Global drivers of species extinction
habitat change - 75% land area sig altered + 66% ocean impacted bc:
- 85% wetland lost
- 1/2 coral cover lost since 1870
- marine plastic poll inc x10 since 1980
- 32mil ha primary/recovering trop RF lost 2010-15
What are the biological indicators of the Anthropocene?
- inc soil N + P content bc fertilisers
- rapid inc in atm CO2 + CH4 conc
- dram inc in spp extinct
- deforest for ag, logging + urban devt
When do fossil fuels accumulate?
when dead plant matter accumulates faster than it can decay → layers of orgo C = FF
Outline scope of species extinction in Australia
110 extinct since Eur col
1800sp = high risk
35% global mammal extinctinction
50% decl in avg bird abundance since 1985
Aus = 2nd highest rate of biodiv loss (Waldron et al. 2013)
‘Evil quartet/sextet’
- invasive spp
- hab loss/frag
- over-ex
- co-ext
- CC e.g. gilbert’s potoroo could be ext by 1 fire
- disease
How is ecosystem collapse assessed?
IUCN created red list
criteria:
decl distrib spp
restricted distrib spp
degred of abiotic environ
altered biotic processes/interactions
Rank five types of conservation interventions by how effective they are at supporting high levels of biodiversity.
- dec consumption
- sus prod
- cut pollution
- CC action
- conservation/restoration
Example of ‘transformative change’
Finance for Biodiv pledge → worlds leading financial instit (worth >14.7trEUR) pledge to ensure investments = biodiv pos
major obstacle in Aus biodiv conservation action
lack of funding
five actionable interventions to prevent biodiversity loss in Australia
- priv protected areas/conservation orgs
- e.g. aus wildlife conservancy
- nat-friendly agri
- indig land mgmt
- comm action
- science/innov
List the threats faced by Nardoo Hills ecosystem
plants
- dec water availability bc dec RF + inc temps
- invasive weed spp e.g. prickly pear cactus
- feral herbs e.g. deers, pigs, goats, rabbits
animals
- pred feral cats + foxes
- habitat loss - esp. trees prov shelter + breeding ground + food e.g. swift parrots
Evidence of the severity of land clearance for agricultural use
60% aus land mass = used for ag in some way
Examples of transformative change in agriculture
- aus govt biodiv stewardship fund
- tiverton farm - pred proof fence w bandicoots inside - improves soil qual + conserves spp
Why is Indigenous land management crucial for threatened species conservation?
nearly 60% Aus threatened spp have part/all distrib on Indig mgmt land
How does cultural burning help to protect/maintain the ecosystem?
nutrient cycling → improve soil health
ensures long-living spp X dominate - averts comp exclusion
stimulates plant reprod
dec freq + severity of late szn wildfires = contrib to CC + sig biodiv loss
Current climate scenarios project…
earth cont warm regardless of actions BUT can mitigate + adapt
Example of Australian rodent that went extinct due to CC
bramble key melomys
How do different types of ecosystems help us adapt to and mitigate CC?
- forests - veg = C sinks
- grasslands - soil = C sinks
- mangroves - coastal buffer i.e. storm surge attenuation
- wetlands - flood water retention
Describe how ecosystems can help reduce the severity of and impacts of CC through nature-based solutions
e.g. mangroves
mangroves:
- acts as C sink - mitig
- cushions impact of storm surge on coastal settlements/ecosystems - adapt
- oxygen water → create healthy habitat for fish/birds/multi marine spp - biodiv
urban challenges and solutions
challenges
- urban heating
- flooding
- poor hwb
- biodiv loss
sols:
inc tree cover
water garden
reserves
List two EPBC-listed species from the temperate grassland of Victoria’s Volcanic Plain and describe the conservation action being taken for them.
striped legless lizard
growling grass frog
2009 Melb Strategic Assessment aimed to offset habitat loss by creating grassland reserves BUT unsuccessful bc difficulties acquiring land
