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BIOL10010 Introductory Biology: Life's Complexity > 01. EVOLUTION & LIFE'S DIVERSITY > Flashcards

01. EVOLUTION & LIFE'S DIVERSITY Flashcards

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1
Q

Outline fission (asexual reproduction)

A

What: Splitting into 2+ equal parts
When: homogenous, stable environ
Who: all domains/kingdoms
Advantages
o Rapid replication
o Minimal E consumption
o Efficient + secure (X need to find mate)
Disadvantages
o Less genetic div → less able to adapt to changing/new environ
Example: bacteria

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2
Q

Outline budding (asexual reproduction)

A

What: parent cell div into 2 uneq parts
When: abundant nutrients  parent grows too lg
Who: uni + multicell orgs from all domains + kingdoms

Advantages:
o Rapid replication
o Can occur anywhere on parent org (a/t some places more common than others)

Disadvantages:
o Less genetic div → less able to adapt to changing/new environ

Examples: hydra (animal) + yeast (fungi)

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3
Q

Outline fragmentation (asexual reproduction)

A

What: frag of parent org breaks off  forms new org
When: w/ intention or stimulated by changing/new environ cond
Who: multicell orgs from all euk kingdoms

Advantages
o E efficient bc a) X have to find mate b) X need to devt sex orgs
o Secure bc X have to find mate
o Genetic clone → favourable traits retained

Disadvantages
o Less genetic div → less able to adapt to changing/new environ

Examples: planaria (flatworm)

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4
Q

Outline vegetative propogation (asexual reproduction)

A

What: part of parent plant used to grow new plant – via multi strats: runners, bulbs, tubers, suckers
When: when reprod orgs have devt + sep from other orgs (e.g. axillary bud grows + seps from lateral shoot  devts indiv roots)
Who: multicell plantae orgs only

Advantages:
o E efficient bc a) X have to find mate b) X need to devt sex orgs
o Secure bc X have to find mate
o Genetic clone → favourable traits retained

Disadvantages
o Less genetic div → less able to adapt to changing/new environ

Examples: strawbs, garlic, potatoes

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5
Q

Outline parthenogenesis (a/sexual reproduction)

A

What: unfertilised egg devt into indiv (mostly remains dip org bc fertilised by mum thru reabsorbtion)
When: male X present
Who: multicell orgs from euk kingdom Animalia

Advantages:
o E efficient + secure bc X have to find mate

Disadvantages:
o Less genetic div → less able to adapt to changing/new environ

Examples: bees, ant, some fish/lizards

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6
Q

Compare the key features of asexual and sexual reproduction

A

Asex:
* req one parent org
* offspring = genetically identical to parent
* time/energy eff
* pop inc rapidly when conditions = optimal
Sexual:
* req two parents orgs
* offspring = hybrid of parents’ genes
* req time/energy to find mate
* inc genetic div -> inc pop resilience bc inc variation w/in pop that NS can act upon

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7
Q

Outline features of alternations of generations

A
  • occurs in multicell protists, all land plants, some fungi
  • alt bw hap + dip gens = both multicell
  • dip form prod spores → hap form prod gametes
  • gametes need to fuse w partner gamete to reprod vs spores don’t
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8
Q

Outline features of sexual reproduction in fungi

A
  • process varies dep on species
  • maj time in hap phase
  • 3 stages = plasmogamy, karyogamy, meiosis
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9
Q

Outline features of reproduction via pollination

A
  • 2 types = biotic + abiotic
  • abiotic factors = wind, rain, water e.g. cedar tree, water plants
  • biotic = attracts pollinators e.g. orchids scent mimic fem bees
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10
Q

Outline features of reproduction in angiosperms

A

stamen structures house sperm = contain genetic info

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11
Q

Draw a diagram of a generalised plant life cycle

A

Image 1

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12
Q

Why do organisms respire?

A

to release energy from food → fuel cell function

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13
Q

What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic respiration?

A

aer resp uses O to extract E from food - anaer uses diff compound e.g. nitrate, sulfur instead

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14
Q

What are the benefits of aerobic + anaerobic respiration?

A

aerobic: release more ATP molecules → possibly enabled evolution of multicellularity + lg size orgs

anaerobic: releases E quickly + can occur in low O environs

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15
Q

Why is fermentation not considered respiration?

A

X use electron transport chain

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16
Q

How did respiration evolve?

A

early life respired anaerobicly bc X much O in atm

h/e emergence of photosynthetic bacteria ~3.5bn yrs ago created cond conducive for aerobic resp ~2.9bn yrs ago

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17
Q

What types of respiration (aerobic or anaerobic) do bacteria and fungi use?

A

bacteria = aer and/or anaer

fungi = mostly aer but occ anaer

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18
Q

How do fungi obtain oxygen in soil?

A

oxygen in tiny air spaces bw soil particles absorbed thru thin outer wall of hyphae (thin branching filamentous structure)

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19
Q

How are bacteria and fungi used to create food?

A

bacteria + fungi = core components of fermentation process = breaks down bacteria/yeast into starch/sugar

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20
Q

Why do all parts of the plant need to respire?

A

minimal gas exchange between parts - need to fulfill own resp needs indiv

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21
Q

How do plants obtain oxygen?

A

via diffusion thru stomata and lenticels
via absorption thru roots

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22
Q

How have plant roots adapted to meet respiration needs?

A
  • aerial roots (pneumatophores)
  • aerenchyma = sml air pockets w/in plant tissue → enabled oxygen flow from exposed to anoxic/waterlogged portion
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23
Q

How do stomata facilitate respiration?

A

open/close to allow gas exchange dep on environ factors - also dets stomata density/aperture

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24
Q

What are some different types of gas exchange in animals?

A
  • direct diffusion
  • integumentary exchange (across skin)
  • trachea
  • gills
  • lungs

often depends on moisture lvl of environ e.g. integ exchange X conducive to dry environ bc skin X wet

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25
Q

What are the four possible stages of respiration in animals?

A
  1. breathing
  2. gas exchange
  3. circulation
  4. cellular resp

not all animals use all 4

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26
Q

Why do surfaces need to remain wet for gas exchange?

A

gasses must first diffuse into liquid before diffusing across the membrane

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27
Q

Features of direct diffusion

A
  • used by sml animals <1mm e.g. flatworms
  • ox diff across outer membrane → supply ox to cells
  • X option for lg animals bc diff ≠ quick enough
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28
Q

Features of integumentary exchange

A
  • used by animals in moist environ e.g. earthworms + amphibians
  • skin = gas exchange surface
  • sim to dir diff but instead diff across integument (skin) into circulatory system → supplies O around body
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29
Q

Why do insects respirate via trachea?

A

exoskeleton = impermeable to gasses

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30
Q

Features of trachea

A
  • system of tubes branching across body w/ openings (spiracles) → can open/close
  • some insects use muscle contractions or extended tracheal branches to ventilate tracheal system
  • seperate from circ system
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31
Q

Features of gills

A
  • used by molluscs, annelids, crustaceans + fish
  • located in cavity or externally
  • highly branched + folded skin tissue
  • O from water diff across gills → circ system/coelomic fluid
  • countercurrent system commonly facilitates O gain + CO2 loss
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32
Q

Features of lungs

A
  • used by amphibians, birds, reptiles + mammals → differs greatly
  • amphibians → sac-like lung
  • reptiles → sac-like or subdiv
  • mammals → branching lungs that end in sml air filled sacs (alveoli)
  • birds → parallel series tubes (parabronchi)
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33
Q

Why is food so important for life?

A
  • maintain normal cellular function + replication INDIV SURVIVAL
  • reproduce SPP SURVIVAL
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34
Q

What is the key distinguishing feature between autotrophs and heterotrophs?

A

autotrophs can synthesise their own food vs heterotrophs cannot

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35
Q

What is the functional difference between an autotroph and a heterotroph?

A

heterotrophs must consume other forms of life

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36
Q

Why are all species of animals and fungi heterotrophs?

A

Animals + fungi X synthesise their own food

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37
Q

Why have scientists concluded that the earliest form of life was a heterotroph?

A

earliest life forms = unicell + resemble modern-day bacteria → fed thru absorbing acid + base mols from org oceans ⇒ t/f heterotrophs

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38
Q

Describe endosymbiotic theory

A
  • oxygenic photosynth evolved ~2.7bn yrs ago in bact sim to modenr cyanobact → early euk cells engulged photosynth bact thru endocytosis → created 1st plant cells
  • explains evol of eukaryotes from prokaryotes
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39
Q

Examples of endosymbiosis

A

endosymb= when one org lives inside another
e.g. euk cells absorb plastids - PT resp w/in euks

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40
Q

Evidence to support conclusion that chloroplasts originated from photosynthesising bacteria?

A

chloroplasts = phylogenetically related to cyanobact

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41
Q

Why are autotrophs so important?

A

prim prod of org E for all other orgs

esp. chemoautotrophs - lived in hostile environs (low sunlight) → prim producers in these ecosystems

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42
Q

How are heterotrophs subdivided?

A

depends on what they eat

  • carnivores → animals
  • insectivores → insects
  • herbivores → plants
  • omnivores → meat, plants, fungi etc.
  • scavengers → remains left by carnivores + herbivores
  • detritivores → soil, leaf litter + other decaying org matter
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43
Q

Why are heterotrophs so important?

A

prim, sec + tertiary consumers of org matter

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44
Q

What is the key difference between a chemoautotroph and a photoautotroph?

A

diff source of inorg E for synthesisation of org comps

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45
Q

What is a chemoautotroph?

A
  • bacteria
  • synth own org mols fuelled thru oxid of inorg compounds
  • thrive in hostile environs
  • critically imp in hostile ecosystems bc prim producers of org E here
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46
Q

What is a photoautotroph?

A
  • organism that prod all req org mols from inorg mols, fuelled thru sunlight e.g. photosyhthesis
47
Q

Why do algae require damp or moist conditions for survival?

A

X possess any water-absorbing/water-conducting structures for desiccation

48
Q

Why are the largest algae extremely thin?

A

allows nutrients to pass easily thru cell walls

49
Q

Name three of the key adaptations land plants have evolved.

A
  • roots to extract water + dissolved nutrients from soil
  • vascular tissue for transp water + nutrients
  • diversity of leaf types + size for PS
50
Q

What features of roots make them so important for land plants?

A
  • facilitate nutrient + water uptake from soil
  • provide structural support + anchorage
  • synthesise plant hormones
  • house nutritional reserves
51
Q

Why did leaves evolve?

A

inc SA for PS + gas exchange → adapted to capture O according to environ factors/ecological niche

52
Q

Ways heterotrophs feed.

A
  • diffusion + phagocytosis
    • diff = nutrients move across cell membrane
    • phagocytosis = specialised structures + cells engulf food/prey
    • useful for sml + uncomplex species
  • filter feeding
    • straining org matter/food parts from water thru spec filtering structure
  • paratisism
    • feed from other species X kill them
    • X prov benefit in return
    • energy eff BUT entirely dep on host
    • e.g. tapeworm, jawless fish
53
Q

Why is filter feeding not effective on land?

A

air X allow for cont org matter/food particle flow involved in FF

54
Q

Why might have insect mouthpart diversity evolved?

A
  • insects spend disprop portion lifespan as juveniles → gather resources to reprod as adults
  • t/f mouthpart div evolved to maximise extraction of resources from prey of specific environ
55
Q

Would you expect a bearded dragon (reptile) to have homodont or heterodont dentition?

A

homodontic bc reptiles = non-mammalian invertibrates

56
Q

What are the differences between excretion, elimination, and respiration?

A

excret = removal of bodily waste products vs elim = removal of unabsorbed food that never part of body vs resp = exchange of gasses

57
Q

What are the differences between passive and active transport?

A
  • passive = common in bact, fungi + some aquatic plants vs active = common in animals
  • passive relies of diff + osmo vs active speeds up process bc involves specialised cells/organs
58
Q

How do guard cells operate in plants?

A

guard cells swell when in high water availability and shrink in low water availability to encourage/prevent water aquisition/loss thru transpiration

59
Q

Why do larger species require more complex excretory mechanisms?

A

need more efficient/resilient system than relying on passive forms (diff + osmo)

60
Q

Reasons why the coelem in so imporant.

Clue: SGCESS - support/gut/circ+excret/space/size

A
  • fluid prov internal support
  • seperate internal processes from gut
  • allows tranp of fluids around circ + excret systems
  • space for devt of internal organs
  • enables inc body size
61
Q

Describe the process of exocytosis

A

process in which vesicles fuse w cell membrane to release contents outside the cell

62
Q

Why might single-celled organisms be limited in their capacity to excrete toxic waste?

A

no specialised organ → relies on passive forms of excretion = diff + osmo

63
Q

What are the three broad measures of excretion in plants?

A
  1. transpiration
  2. storage
  3. diffusion
64
Q

Why might water pressure (root pressure) build up at night?

A

stoma close → dec water uptake by plants in region → water remains in soil → pressure inc

65
Q

Why is N one of the common waste products excreted?

A

all heterotrophic animals req protein → bc protein prod high conc of N when metabolised → lots of N needs to be excreted

66
Q

Excretory products that are composed of N.

A

ammonia, urea, uric acid, guanine

67
Q

Why is removing dung from your surroundings advantageous for an animal?

A

some predators + parasites able to locate prey/hosts thru smell of dung

→ leaf rolling catapillar has adaptation = anal plate → fires faeces out of leaf + far away when triggered by waste build-up

68
Q

The honeydew produced by aphids is technically secreted rather than excreted. Why should we conclude this?

A

secretion is when the exuded substance serves a specific purpose. in this case honeydew is prov as a reward for ants bc deter predators = specific function.

contrast - excretion = removal of definitive waste products

69
Q

Compare passive vs active movement

A

passive= relies on abiotic systems e.g. air, water currents to move
vs active = req E (worK)

70
Q

What are the advantages and disadvantages of active and passive movement?

A

passive
- advantages: minimal E expenditure
- disadvantages: X control over destination - new environ may be suptoptimal

active
- advantages: can ensure move to optimal environ for own devt
- disadvantages: costs E - must balance w E needed for cell maintainance/reprod

71
Q

What are the challenges of living on land?

A
  • need bio structures to capture O in air
  • dehydration/dessication bc lack of water
  • UV radiation
  • X support
  • energy intensive bc maj mvmt = active
  • terr ecosystems = complex + vary dramatically
72
Q

Why might some species adapt to living both on land and in the water?

A

moving in the air = extremely E intensive bc fighting gravity + wind currents → t/f option to switch to water = saves E needed for cellular maintainance/reprod

73
Q

Name three groups that use cilia for locomotion (at some stage in their lives).

A

slugs, snails, worms

74
Q

Name two functions of flagella

A
  1. locomotion along a single plane
  2. sensory organelle
75
Q

Large slime mould are able to feed more effectively; why might this be?

A

larger SA → more # cilia → able to move more quickly

76
Q

How do Cnidarians and molluscs move?

A

via propulsion

77
Q

What features do all chordates share?

A
  • notochord
  • dorsal nerve chord
  • myomeres (segmented muscles)
78
Q

Name two differences between cartilaginous and bony fish.

A
  • buoyancy mechanism - cart fish have lg liver filled w low-density oil vs bony fish have swim bladder
  • support mechanism - cart fish have pectoral fins that prov dynamicm lift vs bony fish have rays or lobes that support weight
79
Q

Why is it unlikely that you would find an amphibian in the desert?

A

all amphibians req water to reprod

80
Q

Wing structure of insects

A

??

81
Q

Wing structure of birds

A

??

82
Q

What is a monophyletic group?

A

refers to a group of organisms uniquely descended from a ancenstor/ancentral group

83
Q

Why are archosaurs polyphyletic?

A

bc both birds + reptiles (multi phyla) evolved from common ancestor

84
Q

Key differences in stance between reptiles and mammals?

A
  • reptiles = sprawling (pressure on knee joint) vs mammals = erect (pressure on hip joint bc femur tucked under pelvis)
  • reptiles → slither side-to-side vs mammals → move back 1/2 body forward/back i.e. same mvmt but diff plane of motion
85
Q

Why is the ability to evolve longer legs an advantage?

A

quicker locomotion

86
Q

Why is tool use so important?

A

better able to manipulate environ + hunt prey

87
Q

Define fossil

A

any remains or trace of a once-living organism

88
Q

Compare relative vs absolute dating

A

rel dating = stratigraphy (rock layer order) + index fossils (inferring fossils found together = from same time period)

abolsute = measure carbon content to chemically pinpoint time of origin

89
Q

What info can fossil records reveal?

A
  • dates
  • physiology
  • diet
  • reprod mode
  • mvmt
  • mig
  • devt
  • thermoreg
  • colour
  • behaviour
90
Q

What is origination rate?

A

rate at which new spp emerge

91
Q

What is extinction rate?

A

rate at which spp go extinct

92
Q

What is adaptive radiation?

A

rapid diversification of evol lineage to suit variety of lifestyles/eco niches

93
Q

Why does adaptive radiation occur?

A

new environ niche AND/OR absence of comp

94
Q

Where does adaptive radiation commonly occur?

A

lake + island ecosystems

95
Q

What is mass extinction?

A

sig divergence from regular extinction rates that causes rapid loss of diversity

96
Q

Why does mass extinction occur?

A

CC, habitat loss, comp, predation

97
Q

Varieties of mass extinction

A

local/global
taxonomically specific/broad
varying timescales

98
Q

Why are we interested in understanding origination and mass extinction rates?

A

r/ship bw orig + ME rate determines if species is diversifying + ID adaptive radiations + mass extinctions

99
Q

What is the Anthropocene?

A

period of time where humans are primary influ on environ

100
Q

How did humans drive the dodo or Tasmanian tiger to extinction?

A

dodo → hunting + introduction of pred species (rats ate eggs)
TAS tiger → hunting, habitat loss, new diseases

101
Q

What is the evidence that we are heading for a sixth mass extinction?

A

ext rates higher than background ext rates - Ceballos et al. 2015

extinction rates approaching level of ‘big five’ ME events- Barnosky et al. 2011

102
Q

Human actions that cause extinction

A
  • habitat loss
  • species intro
  • pollution
  • overexploitation
  • CC

ext of sml # species ⇒ cascading ext bc destab ecosystem

103
Q

Habitat loss case study - Hawai’i

A

??

104
Q

Cascading effects case study - coral

A

more C in atm → oceans acidifying bc carbonic acid (ocean PH dec from 8.21 to 8.10 since IR) → impacts calcifying marine life e.g. coral reefs - calcification (% weight inc per month) in 3 coral species dec as pH dec (Anthony et al. 2008)

105
Q

What organisms are photoautotrophs?

A

green plants/some bacteria/algae

106
Q

Details of anoxic photoautotrophs

A
  • use H2S/org mols = electron source
    • have bacteriachorophylls X chloroplasts
    • live in harsh environs e.g. hot springs → imp for nutrient recycling
107
Q

Details of oxygenic photoautotrophs

A
  • photosynthesise → prod O biproduct
    • e.g. cyanobacteria + algae
108
Q

List animals that reproduce via internal and external fertilisation and describe the behaviours and adaptations that maximise the probability of gametes meeting

A

external - fish, frogs, coral, echinoderms → synch spawning + close prox

internal - humans

109
Q

What are the benefits of internal fertilisation

A
  • protects offspring from pred
  • protects embryo from dehyd
110
Q

How do insects respirate?

A

O2 diff thru trachea

111
Q

Reptiles are…

A

holodonts

112
Q

Label an insect’s mouthpart

A

Image 7
mx → manipulate
md → bite, cut
lb → store
lr → hold

113
Q

Why are desert species unlikely to excrete ammonia?

A

need to conserve water but ammonia req lots water

114
Q

Mammals’ shift in stance is…

A

faster/more energetically efficient

BIOL10010 Introductory Biology: Life's Complexity (8 decks)

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