Final Review Sheet Flashcards
What are the Properties of Living Things?
- Organization - exhibit a higher level of organization than non-living organisms
- Cellular Composition - compartmentalized into one or more cells
- Metabolism - the sum of all internal chemical change
- Responsiveness and Movement - the ability of an organism to sense and react to stimuli
- Homeostasis - maintain internal stability
- Development - any change in form or function over the lifetime of the organism
- Reproduction - produces copies of themselves
What is the Hierarchy of Complexity?
- Organism - a single complete individual
- Organ System - a group of organs with a unique collective function
- Organ - two or more tissues that work together to carry out a function
- Tissue - a mass of similar cells and cell products that form a discrete region of an organ and performs a specific function
- Cell - the smallest unit of an organism that carries out all the basic functions of life
- Organelle - structure in a cell that carries out its individual functions
- Molecule - a particle of composed atoms
- Atom - the smallest particle with unique chemical identities
What are the types of metabolism?
a. Anabolism - molecules are synthesized
b. Catabolism - molecules are broken down
c. Excretion - the separation of wastes from the tissues and their elimination from the body
What is responsiveness and movement?
a. Nerve and muscle cells
b. Self-propelled movement from place to place
What are the different types of development?
a. Differentiation - the transformation of cells with no specialized function into cells that are committed to a particular task
b. Growth - an increase in size
What are Chemical Bonds?
Forces that hold a molecule together and attract molecules to one another
What are the types of Chemical Bonds?
a. Ionic Bond - weak attraction of a cation to an anion that easily dissociates in the presence of something more attractive
b. Covalent Bonds - attraction between atoms formed by the sharing of electrons
c. Hydrogen Bond - a weak attraction between a hydrogen atom in a molecule and an oxygen or nitrogen in another
d. Van der Waals forces - weak, brief attractions between neutral atoms
What are the types of covalent bonds?
i. ) Single Covalent Bond - sharing of a single pair of electrons
ii. ) Double Covalent Bond - sharing of two pairs of electrons
What is the physiology of water?
- Most mixtures in our bodies are chemicals dissolved in H2O
- Water is a very cohesive liquid because of its hydrogen bonds
What are the characteristics of water?
- Solvency - the ability to dissolve other chemicals
- Adhesion - the tendency of one substance to cling to another
- Cohesion - the tendency of molecules of the same substance to cling to each other
- Chemical Reactivity - water participates in chemical reactions by ionizing other chemicals
- Thermal Stability - water has a high heat capacity and thus can absorb heat without changing temperature much
What are the types of solvency?
a. Hydrophilic - substances that dissolve in water
b. Hydrophobic - substances that do not dissolve in water
What is the physiology of adhesion?
Water adheres to the body’s tissue and forms a lubricating film
What is the physiology of cohesion?
a. Water is a cohesive liquid because of its hydrogen bonds
b. Surface tension - a force that holds water molecules together so that they form an elastic layer
What are Carbohydrates and their different types?
- Carbohydrate - hydrophilic organic molecule with the general formula (CH2O)n, where n represents the number of carbon atoms
- Simplest carbohydrates are monomers called monosaccharides
- Disaccharides - sugars composed of two monosaccharides
- Oligosaccharides - short chains of three or more monosaccharides
- Polysaccharides - long chains of monosaccharides
What are the three primary carbohydrates?
- The three primary are glucose, fructose, and galactose all are C6H12O6
- Glucose is the “blood sugar” that provides energy for most cells
What are the primary polysaccharides?
a. Glycogen - energy-storage molecule made by cells of the liver, muscles, brain, uterus, and vagina
b. Starch - energy-storage molecule of plants that is digestible by humans
c. Cellulose - molecule that gives strength to the cell walls of plants, not digestible by humans but is important as a dietary fiber
What are the functions of carbohydrates?
a. A source of energy that can be quickly mobilized
b. Carbohydrates are converted to glucose, which is oxidized to make ATP
c. Glycolipids - component of cell surface coat
d. Glycoproteins - component of cell surface coat and mucus
e. Proteoglycans - cell adhesion, lubrication, and filler of some tissues
What are lipids?
A lipid is a hydrophobic organic molecule with a high ratio of H to O
What are the different types of lipids?
- Fatty Acid - a chain of carbon atoms with a -COOH at one end and -CH3 on the other
- Triglyceride - a molecule consisting of three fatty acids bonded to glycerol
- Phospholipids - similar to triglycerides except one fatty acid is replaced by a phosphate group
- Eicosanoids - 20-carbon compounds derived from a fatty acid
- Cholesterol - a lipid with carbons arranged in four rings
What are the types of Fatty Acids?
a. Saturated Fatty Acid -
b. Unsaturated Fatty Acid - contains some double bonds so hydrogen could be added to the molecule
What are the types of Triglycerides?
a. Oils - triglycerides that are liquid at room temperature
b. Saturated Fats - solid at room or body temperature
c. Adipose Tissue - energy-storage, insulation and cushions organs
What is the physiology of Phospholipids?
a. The fatty acids are hydrophobic, but the phosphate is hydrophilic
b. Phospholipids serve as the foundation of cell membranes
What are the physiology of Eicosanoids?
a. Function as hormone-like chemical signals between cells
b. Prostaglandins - play a variety of signaling roles in inflammation, blood clotting, hormone action, labor contractions, etc
What is the physiology of Cholesterol?
a. Cholesterol - the “parent” from which steroids are formed
b. Cholesterol is also a component of cell membranes and is required for nervous system functions
c. Steroids - hormones
What are the Functions of Membrane Proteins?
a. Receptors - surface proteins where chemical signals from other cells bind chemicals and transport them into the cell
b. Second-Messenger System - a chemical messenger binds to an EC receptor triggering an IC peripheral protein to relay the message to an enzyme which converts a molecule to a second messenger
c. Enzymes - digest nutrients, help produce second messengers, and breakdown signaling molecules
d. Channel Proteins - passageways that allow water and hydrophilic solutes to move through the membrane
e. Carriers - transmembrane proteins that transfer solutes to the other side of the membrane
f. Cell-Identity Markers - glycoprotein acting as “identification tags”
g. Cell-Adhesion Molecules - membrane proteins that bind one cell to another or to extracellular material
What are the differences between Simple Diffusion?
- Simple Diffusion - the movement of particles from a place of high diffusion to a place of lower concentration
- Concentration Gradient - the concentration of a substance differs from one point to another
What are the types of Concentration Gradients?
a. Down or With the Gradient - particle move from a region of high concentration to a region of lower concentration
b. Up or Against the Gradient - particles move from a region of low concentration to a region of higher concentration
What are the factors that affect the rate of diffusion?
a. Temperature - the warmer a substance is, the more rapidly its particles diffuse
b. Molecular Weight - heavy molecules diffuse more slowly than light
c. Steepness of concentration gradient
d. Membrane Surface Area - more surface area means more diffusion
e. Membrane Permeability - nonpolar, hydrophobic, lipid-soluble substances diffuse through phospholipids
What are the mechanisms of carrier-mediated transport?
a. Facilitated Diffusion - transport of a solute through the membrane, down its concentration gradient
b. Primary Active Transport - transport of a solute through the membrane, up its concentration gradient using ATP
c. Secondary Active Transport - transport that requires energy input, but depends only indirectly on ATP
What are the different parts of organelles?
- Organelles - structures in a cell that carry out specialized metabolic tasks
- The Nucleus - the largest organelle, it contains the cell’s chromosomes and is the genetic control center of the cell
- Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) - interconnected channels
- Ribosomes - small granules of proteins and RNA, they interpret the genetic code and synthesize polypeptides
- Golgi Complex
- Lysosomes - a package of enzymes used for IC digestion and autophagy
- Peroxisomes - a package of enzymes that use O2 for detoxification and breaking down fatty acid which produces hydrogen peroxide
- Mitochondria - a double membrane organelle that synthesizes ATP
- Centriole - a short assembly of microtubules that play a role in cell division and also form the basal body of a flagellum or cilium
What makes up the nucleus?
a. Nuclear envelope - two membranes surrounding the nucleus
b. Nuclear pores - proteins that perforate the envelope, regulate traffic through the envelope and hold the membrane together
c. Chromatin - fine thread-like matter composed of DNA and protein
d. Nucleoli - masses where ribosomes are produced
What are the types of Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)?
a. Rough ER - flattened sacs covered with ribosomes, where phospholipids and proteins are produced
b. Smooth ER - tubular channels with no ribosomes, where detoxification occurs, steroid hormones are synthesized, and calcium is stored for muscle contraction
What is the Golgi Complex?
a. System of channels that synthesize carbohydrates and finish up protein and glycoprotein synthesis
b. Vesicles bud off the Golgi and become lysosomes, add new proteins and phospholipids to the membrane, or become secretory vesicles
What is DNA?
DNA is a polymer of nucleotides
What makes up DNA?
a. Nucleotides consist of a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base
b. Nitrogenous bases are cytosine (C), thymine (T), and guanine (G)
What is the structure of DNA?
DNA is described as a double helix that resembles a spiral staircase
a. Each side is composed of phosphate groups alternating with deoxyribose (sugar)
b. The step-like connections are pairs of nitrogenous bases (A-T, G-C) which hold the side pieces together with hydrogen bonds
What is the primary function of DNA?
The essential function is to carry instructions for synthesis of proteins
What is the structure of RNA?
- RNA consists only of one nucleotide chain
- The sugar is ribose
- RNA has no thymine, but uracil takes its place
What are the types of RNA?
a. mRNA - the molecule that carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the cytoplasm
b. tRNA - binds a free amino acid and delivers it to the ribosome
c. Ribosome - the molecule that “reads” the mRNA
What are the phases of mitosis?
a. Prophase
b. Metaphase - the chromosomes align at the cell equator
c. Anaphase - sister chromatids are pulled apart to opposite poles of the cell
d. Telophase
What happens during prophase?
i. ) Chromosomes coil into compact rods which consist of two identical sister chromatids
ii. ) The nuclear envelope disintegrates
What happens during telophase?
i. ) A new nuclear envelope forms around the chromatids
ii. ) The chromatids uncoil
What is simple epithelia?
Only one layer of cells
What are the types of simple epithelia?
- Simple Squamous Epithelium - thin cells with flattened nucleus
- Simple Cuboidal Epithelium - square or round cells
- Simple Columnar Epithelium - tall, narrow cells
- Pseudostratified Columnar Epithelium - looks multilayered, some cells do not reach the free surface, often with goblet cells and cilia
What are the locations and functions of simple squamous epithelium?
a. Locations - alveoli, glomerlular capsule, endothelium, serosa
b. Functions - allows rapid diffusion or transport of substances through membranes, secretes lubricating serous fluid
What are the locations and functions of simple cuboidal epithelium?
a. Locations - liver, thyroid, mammary, salivary, and other glands; most kidney tubules, bronchioles
b. Functions - absorption and secretion, mucus production, movement of respiratory mucus
What are the locations and functions of simple columnar epithelium?
a. Locations - inner lining of the stomach, intestines, gall bladder, uterus, uterine tubes; some kidney tubules
b. Functions - absorption, secretion of mucus, movement of egg and embryo
What are the locations and functions of pseudostratified columnar epithelium?
a. Locations - respiratory tract from nasal cavity to bronchi
b. Functions - secretes and propels mucus
