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hs 2711 > final - readings > Flashcards

final - readings Flashcards

1
Q

psychological models of development in adulthood

A

Psychological models attempt to explain the development of the person 

How adaptive abilities unfold over the course of life 

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2
Q

erikson’s psychosocial theory

A

People develop a series of 8 stages as they progress from birth to death  

Theory proposes that at certain points in life, person’s biological, psychological and social changes come together to influence our personality  

Each stage of development = time during which individual may move closer to either a positive or negative resolution of a particular psychosocial issue 

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3
Q

Adolescence: Identity Achievement vs Identity Isolation  

  • is 5th stage
A

First stage directly relevant to adulthood  

Indiv must decide ‘who’ they are, what they wish to get out of life  

Identity diffusion = lack of direction, vagueness about life’s purposes, unclear sense of self  

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4
Q

Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs Isolation  

  • is 6th stage
A

Biology, psychology and  sociocultural factors make it likely people are faced with decisions about committing to LT relationships 

  • Emerge from stage ready to embark on close relationship: intimacy 
  • Or unable to make long term commitments: isolation 
  • Perfect intimate relationship = overlap of two  
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5
Q

epigenetic principle

A

Everyone goes through 8 stages in same order  

Epigenetic principle asserts each stage unfolds from previous  

Issues that characterize each stage (ex: trust vs mistrust) may coexist as relevant concerns throughout adulthood 

How? - ex: woman is mugged 

  • Left emotionally shaken, in pain  
  • Reliving issues of trust experienced in infancy  
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6
Q

Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs Stagnation 

A

Focused on psychosocial issues of procreation, productivity + creativity 

Parenthood  

Can also be developed through teaching, mentoring, supervising  

Main feature (generativity) = feeling of concern over what happens to younger gen  

Want to make world  a better place for them  

Stagnation = concerns are focused on own age group

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7
Q

Later Adulthood: Ego Integrity vs Despair  

A

Strong sense of ego integrity - when older adults can look at life and accept positive/negative attributes 

Acceptance of past and present  

Helps people attain acceptance about being at the end of their lives 

Despair - realization that death is coming too soon, can’t achieve major life goals, rectify mistakes 

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8
Q

piaget’s cognitive development theory

A

Tried to explain processed underlying growth of cognitive abilities  

Hypothesized existence of set of underlying processes  

Eventually allowed them to achieve understanding + mastery of physical world  

Believed development involves continuing growth of indiv knowledge about the world  

Through set of processes called schemas   = mental structures used to understand world  

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9
Q

piaget’s cognitive development theory

ASSIMILATION + ACCOMODATION

A

Assimilation = people use existing schemas to understand world around them  

  • Not traditional definition  
  • Refers to situation where indiv change interpretations of reality to fit existing schemas that they already hold 
  • Instead of changing themselves to fit the culture 
  • Change perception of culture to fit their own way of understanding it  
  • Same schema  

Accommodation =  changing schemas in response to new info about the world  

  • Ex - limited understanding of birds, bird expert explains classifications and types 
  • Changing schema 
    aCCommodation -> C as in change

Assimilation and accommodation occur throughout development  
- Different stages represent equilibrium 

 

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10
Q

identity process theory

A

Proposes identity continues to change in adulthood in a dynamic manner  

Identity?  

  • Set of schemas person holds about themselves  
  • Who am I?  
  • Views about physical self  
  • Connections and views to cultural heritage  

 
Identity                                          
- Favourable view of the self   

Threshold’ Experience 

  • Normal changes 
  • Illness  

                                 

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11
Q

assimilation

A

Tendency to interpret experiences in terms of person’s existing identity 

Ex: being good student  
You see yourself as, others view you as 
Occasionally may do poorly 
- Assimilation sees this as good student who ran through rough patch 

No change in identity  

Adv: allows people to feel reasonably happy  
Disadv: can lead to distorting interpretation of experiences when change would truly be warranted  
—–>Blaming material or professor for bad grade  

Not taking accountability or realizing how own academic weakness contributed to situation  

You will never find yourself at fault if you blame others - why accepting your imperfections is vital to your growth 

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12
Q

accomodation

A

Making changes to identity in response to experiences challenging current view of themselves  

Produces self image that is more in syc with reality  

Can also lead to a negative view of ones self  

Focusing on weaknesses instead of strengths

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13
Q

balance

A

Equilibrium between accommodation and assimilation  

View themselves consistently, can make changes when called for  

Identity balance leads to individual having strong sense of self-efficacy  

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14
Q

multiple threshold model

A

Adults come to the realization that they are aging through a stepwise process of aging related changes 

May be more pre-occupied/aware with the changes that affect you more or mean more to you  

  • Grey hair vs loss of muscle  
  • Example: Being called ‘sir” or ‘ma’am’  
  • May start to challenge view you have of yourself as a young person  

Can disregard whole experience and not change identity (assimilation)  

Conclude that you aging quicker than you thought (accommodation) 

Note the experience, accept that you are aging + be fine with the fact that people are treating you with respect (balance) 

 
Assimilation can be healthy or unhealthy  

Best to adopt a balance where you admit that you are aging without adopting a defeatist attitude  

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15
Q

selective compensation w optimization model

A

Adults attempt to preserve and maximize the abilities that are of central importance  

Put less effort into maintaining those that are not  

Model implies that at some point in adulthood, people deliberately reduce efforts in one area in order to focus more on achieving success in another  

Usually choose to focus on something that has greater importance, where chance of success is higher  

Example: High impact aerobics being too hard on knees   -> Do yoga instead  

  • Emphasizes ways to adapt to loss  
  • Readjust goals and maintain sense of wellbeing 
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16
Q

cognition

A

Way the mind works  

Processes of:  
Attention  
Memory   
Intelligence   
Problem solving   
Use of language 

Aging effects each area + ability of people to carry out daily activities  

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17
Q

processing speed

A

Amount of time it takes for an individual to analyze incoming information from senses 

Formulate decision  

Prepare response 

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18
Q

reaction time

A

Basic measure of processing speed 

Measured by asking participant to complete action  

Ex: push computer key when screen flashes at particular stimulus  

reaction time quicker in younger adults

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19
Q

simple reaction time tasks

A

Push key as soon as you see target 

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20
Q

choice reaction time tasks

A

Different responses for different stimuli 

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21
Q

why do reaction times slow as you age

A

General slowing hypothesis 

Increase in reaction time reflects general decline in information processing speed within nervous system of aging indiv  

Age-Complexity hypothesis  

Through slowing central processes in nervous system, age differences become more complex and resources stretched more to limit  
 

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22
Q

attention

A

Involves ability to focus/concentrate on portion of experience while ignoring other features of that experience  

Shift focus as demanded in situation  

Be able to coordinate information from multiple sources  

Once attention is focused on piece of info, can perform further cognitive operations

23
Q

types of attentional tasks

A

Suggests that people become less efficient in the use of attention processes as they get older  

Studies  on attention and aging involve visual search tasks 

Require observer to locate a specific target among a set of distractors  

Simple Visual Search  

  • Target differs by one feature 
  • Relies on parallel processing  
  • Fairly easily to spot target quickly and accurately  
  • Older and younger adults perform at similarly high levels 

Conjunction Visual Search  

  • Target differs by more than one feature  
  • Relies on serial processing  
  • More time consuming  
  • Both age groups perform less efficiently than simple tasks 
  • Cost to performance greater in adults  

There tends to be a poor performance from multi tasking in general, disadvantages especially seen in older adults  

24
Q

inhibitory control

A

Determining whether older adults have difficulty turning off one response while performing another  

Ex: names of different colours appear in different ink tones  

Easier to name the colour that matches the ink  

People with better inhibitory control can more easily focus on naming the word rather than ink colour 

25
Q

sustained attention

A

Participants must respond when they see a particular target out of a continuous stream of stimuli  

Older adults typically have more difficulty with these tasks  

26
Q

theories of attention + aging

A

Attentional Resources  

  • Regards attention as process of reflecting allocation of cognitive resources  
  • Dedicating certain proportion of mental operations to that object 
  • Older adults have greater difficulty  
  • Don’t have same amount of energy available for cognitive operations  

Inhibitory Deficit Hypothesis  

  • Aging reduces ability to inhibit or tune out irrelevant information  
  • Older and middle aged adults perform better when they have fewer distractions 
  • One of them being their own concern over how they are performing  
  • The more you worry about personal performance, the less you are able to concentrate on the task 
  • Experience can compensate for age related changes in sustained attention
27
Q

video games and attention

A

Young adults who play video games have improved attentional capacity  

  • Can make finer grained distinctions; better decisions  
  • Better able to focus attention, can ignore distractions and irrelevant information  

Can be used to enhance a variety of skills 

  • Peripheral vision  
  • Multiple targets  

Could also have effect on older adults

28
Q

driving and aging

A

Changes in cognitive functions such as reaction time and attention threaten impairment of ability to perform vital tasks in older adults  

Visual changes that can impair performance  

  • Increased sensitivity to glare  
  • Difficulty seeing in dark  

Medications taken by older adults can have side effects that can affect driving ability  
- Drowsiness   + Confusion  

Crashes involving older adults generally occur at intersections  

  • Left turns  
  • More difficult by older drivers when they have to merge or yield to oncoming traffic  

Younger drivers more likely to drink and drive, drive while distracted  

Many older drivers take precautions to account for impairments and decrease in cognitive abilities  

  • Not driving during rush hour, night or bad weather  
  • Leaving greater distances between cars 

Older drivers also have more experience  

  • More cautious and can predict the behaviours of other drivers in certain scenarios  
  • Pulling out of parking spot without signalling, controlling car to avoid spinning in ice 

Adults decisions about whether to continue to drive depends on 

  • Ability to find alternative transport 
  • Perceived health  
  • What driving means to their identity, ability to stay connected to the outside world 

Age and gender related to attitudes about driving  
- Older participants = more concerns about driving, less comfort 

May also incorporate social attitudes about driving  
- Prejudice from young people 

There is hope that with an increase in technology, we can better adapt to the needs of older drivers  

29
Q

working memory

A

Keeps information temporarily available and active in consciousness  

Use working memory when learning new information, recalling information you have previously learned  

4 components of working memory:

  • auditory memory
  • visuospatial memory
  • episodic buffer
  • central executive

Research shows working memory is greatest in young adulthood, decreases over time  

Adaptations and compensatory mechanisms can come into play to make up for losses according to the scaffolding theory  

Default network  

  • Circuit of brain active while brain is at rest  
  • Older adults show less activation of default network
30
Q

auditory memory

A

Memory for what you hear  

Held within phonological loop 

Can be rehearsed by repeating material over and over

31
Q

visuospatial memory

A

Memory for information you see 

32
Q

episodic buffer

A

Recalling information from long term memory  

Brings it temporarily into working memory 

33
Q

central executive

A

Rely on when deciding how to allocate cognitive resources to a particular task

34
Q

effects of aging on longterm memory

A

LT memory includes information including recent past 

Process includes encoding, storage and retrieval  

Encode: when we first learn it, kept in long term storage and retrieved when needed 

35
Q

abilities that decline w age

A 
episodic memory
source memory
false memory
tip of the tongue memory
prospective memory
36
Q

abilities that do not decline w age

A 
flashbulb memory
semantic memory
procedural memory
implicit memory
autobiographical memory
37
Q

episodic memory

A

LT memory for events 

Fundamental to everyday tasks 

Intentional and incidental learning  

What you did last night 

decline w age

38
Q

source memory

A

Difficulty forming and retrieving links  

Between an item and source  

‘who said what’  

declines w age

39
Q

false memory

A

Remembering something that never happened  

declines w age

40
Q

tip of tongue mem

A

Unable to remember information you once knew  

Trying to remember names etc

declines w age

41
Q

prospective mem

A

Recalling events to do in the future  

Taking medication 

declines w age

42
Q

flashbulb mem

A

Recalling important and distinctive events 

Weddings, deaths, disasters, attacks 

As likely as younger adults to remember these 

doesnt decline w age

43
Q

semantic memory

A

Ability to recall word meanings and factual information  

doesnt decline w age

44
Q

procedural mem

A

Recalling actions in how to do certain tasks  

Riding a bike 

doesnt decline w age

45
Q

implicit mem

A

Memories/information that we take on without intending to do so 

doesnt decline w age

46
Q

autobiographical mem

A

Recalling information from your own past 

doesnt decline w age

47
Q

health realted beh + memory

A

Memory in later adulthood related to a variety of health related behaviours 

  • Smoking 
  • Fish high in omega 3 
  • Vitamin B12 

Aerobic exercise can contribute to increases in brain areas 

Stress can interfere with memory performance 

48
Q

social cognition + aging

A

Research focused on understanding how cognitive aging is influenced by individual beliefs and social contexts 

Individual beliefs (how you think about your memory) may play an important role in addition to your age  

Memory self-efficacy: form of self efficacy refers to confidence you have in your memory 
– Degree to which you can successfully complete a memory task  

Stereotype threat: suggests that people perform in ways consistent with negative stereotypes of the group to which they see themselves as belonging to 
— Identification of negative images with aging interferes with memory performance in older adults 

Lowers their feelings of self efficacy  

49
Q

psych of wisdom

A

Reflects far less quantifiable phenomenon  

Adults can become increasingly capable of dealing with higher level conceptual issues  
- Conventional tests (measurement of mechanics of intelligence) did not capture these abilities 

Central element of Wisdom Model  

  • Proposes wise people are experts in pragmatics of intelligence  
  • —–> Can apply their abilities to solution of real life problems  
50
Q

topic of exploring psychology of wisdom

A

(Baltes) 

After realizing traditional view of intelligence only focused on mechanics of intelligence  

Involving cognitive operations  

  • Speed 
  • Working memory  
  • Fluid intelligence  
51
Q

define wisdom

A

Might come up with meaning that incorporates indiv knowledge of ways of the world and understanding how other people feel, think and behave 

52
Q

berlin wisdom paradigm

A

Wisdom is form of expert knowledge in pragmatics of life 

Evolves in later years of life for many people  
- Aware of culture shaping lives and personalities  = life-span contextualism  

Wise people = less likely to judge others 
- Greater appreciation for individual differences and values, life experiences and beliefs   = value relativism  

  • Also have rich base of facutal and declarative knowledge 
  • —- Extensive background of procedural knowledge  
  • —-They know how things work  
  • Able to recognize uncertainty = fact of life 
53
Q

grossman et al

A

Another study with a more representative population  

Stories with social problems involving different ethnic groups  

Finding supported view:  

  • Older adults are better able to take on multiple perspectives  
  • Try to compromise  
  • Recognize limitations of knowledge  

Cultural influences display role in development of wisdom over the years 

  • Same study, Japanese participants showed more wisdom  
  • Weaker differences between older adults in the group  

 

54
Q

wisdom plays role in facilitating own adjustment to life  

A

Higher wisdom ranking = higher life satisfaction 

Lower negative effect  

Less depressive thoughts 

Better social relationships 

hs 2711 (3 decks)

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