Final Flashcards
What embryonic layer is the neural plate a thickening of?
Ectoderm
What is formed after the neural plate and then after that intermediate?
Neural plate - neural groove - neural tube
What are the primary vesicles in the 3 week embryo?
Prosencephalon
Mesencephalon
Rhombencephalon
What are the secondary brain vesicles that form from the primary vesicles?
Telencephalon
Diencephalon
Mesencephalon
Metencehpalon
Myelencephalon
What are the 4 major brain regions?
Cerebrum
Diencephalon
Brain stem
Cerebellum
What 2 structures are included in the diencephalon?
Thalamus
Hypothalamus
What 3 structures make up the brain stem?
Mesencephalon
Pons
Medulla oblongata
Gray matter forms ___ whereas white matter forms ___
Nuclei; tracts
What structures protect the brain? 4
Cranium
Meninges
CSF
BBB
What is the function of the cranial meninges?
Protect the brain
Framework for blood vessels
Circulate CSF
Is the epidural space of the skull a real space?
No, it is a potential space existing under pathological conditions
Is the subdural space a real space?
No, potential space only existing under pathological conditions
What does the subarachnoid space contain? 3
Actual space containing CSF, arteries, and veins
What are the 4 cranial dural septa?
Falx cerebri
Tentorium cerebelli
Falx cerebelli
Diaphragma selae
Where is the falx cerebri found and what does it separate?
In the longitudinal fissure; separates the R and L hemispheres
What 2 major veins are found within the falx cerebri?
Superior sagittal sinus
Inferior sagittal sinus
What shape does the tentorium cerebelli resemble and what structures does it separate?
Resembles a tent; separates the cerebrum from the cerebellum
What major blood vessels are found within the tentorium cerebelli?
Transverse sinuses
What does the diphragma selae separate?
Separates the pituitary and the hypothalamus
What is the purpose of the brain ventricles?
Buoyancy
Protection
Environmental stability
Where are the 2 lateral ventricles found?
One in each hemisphere
Where is the 3rd ventricle found?
In the diencephalon
Where is the 4th ventricle found?
Between the pons and the cerebellum
How does the 3rd ventricle communicate with the lateral ventricles and the 4th ventricle?
Lateral ventricles: interventricular foramen
4th ventricle: cerebral aqueduct
How much CSF is produced a day by the choroid plexuses?
500ml/day
What 2 structures allow CSF to flow into the subarachnoid space?
Lateral and median apertures
General function of the left and right hemispheres:
Left: speech, writing, language, math
Right: spatial visualization, touch analysis
What is the function of the precentral gyrus?
Voluntary movement via somatic motor neuron control in the brain stem and spinal cord; AKA primary motor cortex
What is the function of the postcentral gyrus?
Receive somatic sensory info for:
- touch
- pressure
- pain
- taste
- temp
All from the dorsal columns and spinothalamic tracts
What is another name for the precentral gyrus and postcentral gyrus?
Primary motor cortex; primary sensory cortex
Where is the insula found and what is its function?
Found folded within the lateral sulcus
Emotion, empathy, taste, self-awareness
What are the specific nuclei within the basal ganglia?
Caudate nucleus
Lentiform nucleus (putamen and globus pallidus)
Claustrum
Amygdaloid body
Function of caudate nucleus
Coordinate walking
Function of amygdaloid body
Emotional expression
Function of lentiform nucleus
Movement and muscle tone
Function of claustrum
Subconscious visual processing
What partially forms the roof of the diencephalon? What are its 2 components?
Epithalamus
- pineal gland
- habenular nuclei
What is the function of the habenular nuclei? 2
Relays info from limbic system to midbrain; visceral and emotional response to door
What is the only sense that the thalamus does not receive input from?
Olfaction
What functions does the hypothalamus control?
Autonomic functions, endocrine, temp, emotional behaviour, sleep-wake rhythms
What structure connects the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland?
Infundibulum
Where are the nuclei of many cranial nerves found?
Brainstem
What is the function of the midbrain?
Processes visual, auditory, and motor info - generates reflex response
What makes up the corpora quadrigemina?
2 pairs of sensory nuclei: superior and inferior colliculus x2
What does the superior colliculus process and what does the inferior colliculus process?
Superior colliculus: visual stimuli
Inferior colliculus: auditory stimuli
What are the cerebral peduncles?
Motor tracts
What other major structures are found in the brainstem?
Nuclei of the reticular formation
Red nucleus
Substantia nigra
What is the function of the reticular formation?
Maintaining alertness
What is the function of the red nucleus? 2
Involuntary motor commands
- muscle tone & limb position
What is the function of the substantia nigra?
DA production
- motor control
- emotion
- pleasure
- pain
What is the main function of the pons?
Contains autonomic nuclei that regulate breathing
What cranial nerve nuclei are found within the pons? 3
Trigeminal (V)
Abducens (VI)
Facial (VII)
What are the name of the tracts that are found in the medulla oblongata pyramids?
Corticospinal tracts
What cranial nerves are associated with the medulla oblongata?
VIII, IX, X, XI, XII
What is the purpose of the inferior olivary nucleus and where are they found?
Relays proprioceptive info to cerebellum; found in medulla oblongata
What major autonomic centres are found in the medulla oblongata?
Cardiovascular and respiratory
What is the function of the cerebellum? 4
Coordinates and fine-tunes skeletal movements
Stores movement patterns
Equilibrium and posture
Receives feedback
Where is arbor vitae found?
White matter in the cerebellum
What does the superior cerebellar peduncle connect? Middle? Inferior?
Superior: midbrain to cerebellum
Middle: pons to cerebellum
Inferior: medulla oblongata to cerebellum
What are the components of the limbic system? 7
Cingulate gyrus
Parahippocampal gyrus
Hippocampus
Amygdaloid body
Fornix
Mamillary body
Olfactory bulb
How does the limbic system affect memory formation?
Integration of past memories of physical sensation with emotional states
What does the fornix connect?
White matter connecting the hippocampus to the hypothalamus
List all 12 cranial nerves in order (anterior to posterior)
Olfactory (I)
Optic (II)
Oculomotor (III)
Trochlear (IV)
Trigeminal (V)
Abducens (VI)
Facial (VII)
Vestibulocochlear (VIII)
Glossopharyngeal (IX)
Vagus (X)
Hypoglossal (XII)
Accessory (XI)
What is the function and pathway of the olfactory (CN I) nerve?
Function: sensory (smell)
Pathway: cribriform plate of ethmoid
What is the function, pathway, and destination of the optic (CN II) nerve?
Function: sensory (vision)
Pathway: optical canal of sphenoid
Destination: occipital lobe, diencephalon
What is the function, origin, and pathway of the oculomotor (CN III) nerve?
Function: motor; extra-ocular and pupillae muscles
Origin: midbrain
Pathway: superior orbital fissure of sphenoid
What is the function and origin of the trigeminal (CN V) nerve?
Function: mixed function
- Sensory: touch, temp, pain
- Motor: muscles of mastication
Origin: pons
What is the function, origin, and pathway of the abducens (CN VI) nerve?
Function: motor, muscles of eye
Origin: pons
Pathway: superior orbital fissure
What is the function, pathway, and origin of the facial (CN VII) nerve?
Function: mixed
Pathway:
- sensory: taste (anterior 2/3)
- motor: muscles of facial expression, salivary glands
Origin: pons
What is the function and pathway of the vestibulocochlear (CN VIII) nerve?
Function: sensory - balance and hearing
Pathway: internal acoustic meatus
What is the function, pathway, and origin of the glossopharyngeal (CN IX) nerve?
Function: mixed
Pathway: jugular foramen
- sensory: taste (posterior 1/3)
- motor: muscles that assist swallowing; parotid salivary gland
Origin: medulla oblongata
What is the function, pathway, and origin of the vagus (CN X) nerve?
Function: mixed
Pathway: jugular foramen
- sensory: tongue, throat, heart, esophagus, abdominal viscera, and intestine
- motor: muscles of the throat, heart, lungs, larynx, trachea, and most abdominal organs
Origin: medulla oblongata
What is the function, origin, and pathway of the accessory (CN XI) nerve?
Function: motor, controls SCM, traps, some pharynx muscles
Origin: medulla oblongata
Pathway: jugular foramen
What is the function, pathway, and origin of the hypoglossal (CN XII) nerve?
Function: motor (controls tongue muscles)
Pathway: hypoglossal canal of occipital bone
Origin: medulla oblongata
What is the overall function of the somatic nervous system? 2
Sensory info of vision, hearing, touch, proprioception, etc
Motor info to control skeletal muscles
How are the parasympathetic and sympathetic preganglionic axons different?
Parasympathetic: long preganglionic axons
Sympathetic: short preganglionic axons
What is different between the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches of the autonomic nervous system in relation to the number of preganglionic branches?
Parasympathetic: preganglionic axons have few branches
Sympathetic: preganglionic axons have many branches
What branch of the ANS has ganglia very close, or on the effector?
Parasympathetic division
What is another term for the parasympathetic division and why is it named as such?
Craniosacral division; because preganglionic neurons are found within the brainstem and the sacral region of the spinal cord
What kind of activation is seen in the parasympathetic division of the ANS? Widespread, local, etc
Discreet and local activation for rest and digest
What are the 4 nerves that carry parasympathetic fibres?
CN III
CN VII
CN IX
CN X
At what level(s) do the 3 nerves from the sacrum exit in the parasympathetic system? What do they innervate?
S2, S3, S4
Innervate visceral organs of inferior abdominopelvic region
What is another term for the sympathetic division of the ANS and why is it named as such?
Thoracolumbar division; preganglionic cell bodies are found in T1-L2 segments of spinal cord
Where are the 2 locations of sympathetic ganglia found?
Paravertebral ganglia (sympathetic trunk): either side of vertebral column
Prevertebral column: anterior to the vertebral column
In the sympathetic trunk ganglia, which section of the ganglia exclusively have white rammus communicantes?
Ganglia of T1-L2
What are the 3 pathways to exit the sympathetic chain?
Spinal nerve
Sympathetic nerve
Splanchnic nerve
What fibres are carried in the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities of the autonomic plexuses?
Mix fibres (SN & PN)
What are 4 exceptions to dual innervation of the ANS?
- blood vessels
- sweat glands
- arrector pili m
- adrenal medulla
All SNS only
What is the function of the pericardium?
Restricts movement, decreases friction
What are the names of the 2 walls of the pericardium?
Parietal pericardium (outer)
Visceral pericardium (inner)
What type of connective tissue is on the parietal layer and what is its name?
Dense irregular CT
Fibrous pericardium
How much fluid does the pericardial cavity contain?
10-20mL of fluid
What is the fibrous pericardium attached to?
Inferiorly to diaphragm
Superiorly to great vessels
What 2 areas is the pericardial fat found in?
Pericardial fat (visceral)
Paracardial fat (parietal)
What is the function of the pericardial fat?
- immune barrier
- mechanical protection
- source of energy
What are the external boundaries of the heart?
Atrioventricular groove
Interventricular groove (anterior & posterior)
What is another name for the auricles? What is their purpose?
Atrial appendage
Allows for slight atrial expansion
On which surface of the heart are the pectinate muscles found?
Lateral and anterior
How many papillary muscles are in the right ventricle and what do they attach to?
3, attach to chordae tendineae - one for each cusp of valve
What is the function of the fibrous skeleton of the heart?
Structural support and electrical insulator b/w atria and ventricles
What kind of connective tissue is the fibrous skeleton of the heart and where is it found?
Dense irregular CT, b/w atria and ventricles
What is the purpose of the spiral pattern of cardiac muscles?
Allows for forceful contraction to eject blood; left ventricle thicker
What is the function of the ligamentum arteriosum?
Stabilizing
What are the only branches of the ascending aorta, above the aortic valve?
Coronary arteries
Which sulcus is the right coronary artery found in?
Coronary sulcus
What branches originate from the right coronary artery? 3
Atrial branch
Anterior cardiac arteries
Right marginal branch
What are the major branches of the left coronary artery? 3
Circumflex branch
Left marginal branch
Anterior interventricular branch
Why are anastomoses beneficial?
If the main artery to an area is blocked, smaller arteries may increase in size to compensate
What are the 3 types of anastomoses?
Arterio-arterial
Veno-venous
Arterio-Venus
Where is the coronary sinus found and what does it drain into?
Posterior side in the coronary sulcus
Empties into right atrium
What are the veins of the heart? 3
Small cardiac
Anterior interventricular
Posterior interventricular
What are the 3 branches of the aortic arch? Medial to lateral
Brachiocephalic trunk
Left common carotid
Left subclavian
What does the descending aorta supply?
Thorax, abdominopelvic, lower extremity
What is the largest branch of the aortic arch? What 2 arteries does it divide into?
Brachiocephalic trunk
Right common carotid and right subclavian arteries
What does the external carotid artery divide into? 2
Maxillary artery
Superficial temporal artery
What does the maxillary artery turn into? What does this artery supply and what is the pathway?
Turns into the middle meningeal artery
Goes through foramen spinosum and supplies dura mater
Where does the internal carotid artery and vertebral artery join?
Circle of Willis
After the first rib, what does the subclavian artery become? At what border does this artery turn into a different artery?
At first rib becomes the axillary artery
At the border of the teres major tendon it becomes the brachial artery
What does the brachial artery divide into and where does it divide?
Radial and ulnar artery, just below the elbow
What does the radial artery and ulnar artery form?
Radial forms deep palmar arch
Ulnar forms superficial palmar arch
At the 4th lumbar vertebrae, what does the abdominal aorta divide into?
R & L common iliac arteries
What does the common iliac artery divide into? 2
At what level does this occur?
Divides into the external and internal iliac artery at the level of the SI joint
Does the external iliac artery pass underneath or overtop the inguinal ligament? What does this artery give rise to?
Passes under the inguinal ligament, becomes the femoral artery
Which canal does the femoral artery go through?
Adductor canal
Beyond the adductor hiatus, what does the femoral artery become?
Popliteal artery
What does the popliteal artery divide into? 2
Anterior and posterior tibial arteries
What is the largest branch of the posterior tibial artery?
Fibular artery
What 2 arteries does the posterior tibial artery divide into in the foot?
Medial and lateral plantar arteries
Where do the digital branch arteries of the toes originate from?
The plantar arch
As the tibialis anterior artery passes the front of the ankle what does it become?
Dorsalis pedis artery
What branch does the dorsalis pedis artery give off?
Arcuate artery which then forms the dorsal arch
How do the plantar and dorsal arches connect?
Anastomoses
What does most cranial venous blood drain through?
Dural venous sinuses
What sinuses are included in the dural sinus system? 6
Superior & inferior sagittal sinus
Straight sinus
L & R transverse sinuses
L & R sigmoid sinuses
Cavernous sinus
Superior and inferior petrosal sinuses
What combines to form the superior vena cava?
Right and left Brachiocephalic veins
What combines to form the brachiocephalic veins? 2
Internal jugular and subclavian veins
Where does the external jugular vein receive blood from?
Scalp and deep parts of the face
- area supplied by the external carotid artery
Where is the external jugular vein in relation to the SCM?
Superficial and lateral to it
Where does the internal jugular vein receive blood from and where does it exit?
Receives from the sinuses before exiting the jugular foramen
What is included in the carotid sheath? 3
Internal jugular vein, carotid artery, and vagus nerve
Where is the vertebral vein formed? What does it pass through?
Suboccipital triangle
Passes through the transverse foramina of cervical vertebrae and goes into the brachiocephalic trunk
How is the respiratory system anatomically divided?
Upper and Lower tracts
What is included in the upper respiratory tract?
Nose, nasal cavity, sinuses, pharynx
What is included in the lower respiratory tract?
Larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli
How is the respiratory system functionally divided?
Conduction portion
Respiratory portion
Pulmonary ventilation
Air movement b/w environment and lungs
External respiration
Gas exchange b/w atmosphere and blood
Internal respiration
Gas exchange b/w blood and body cells
Cellular respiration
Use and production of gases in metabolism
What are the 4 bones that sinuses are found in?
Frontal
Ethmoid
Sphenoid
Maxillary
What are the 3 regions that the pharynx is divided into?
Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
What are the 9 cartilage structures in the larynx?
3 single: epiglottic, thyroid, and cricoid
3 paired: arytenoid, corniculate, and cuneiform
Where does the trachea divide into the right and left primary bronchi?
Sternal angle
What is the trachea supported by? 2
C-shaped tracheal cartilage
Annular ligaments
What type of muscle is the trachealis?
Smooth muscle
What is the purpose of the trachealis muscle?
C-shape cartilage does not go all the way around the trachea so the muscle bridges the gap at the posterior border
What are the 3 lobes of the right lung divided by? 2
Horizontal and oblique fissures
What are the 2 lobes of the left lung divided by?
Oblique fissure
What does the left lung have that the right does not?
Cardiac notch
What do the main bronchi divide into and how many are there on each side?
Secondary bronchi
- 3 on the right
- 2 on the left
How many tertiary bronchi supply each lung?
8-10
What is a bronchopulmonary segment?
A specific area of the lung that the tertiary bronchi supplies
How many bronchopulmonary segments are in each lung?
Right has 10
Left has 8-9
What defines a bronchiole?
Being less than 1mm in diameter
What do bronchioles lack and what other structure is used to make up for this?
They lack cartilage, but they have a thick layer of smooth muscle
What does a terminal bronchiole supply air to?
A single pulmonary lobule
Where is the beginning of the respiratory zone?
At the branching of terminal bronchioles into respiratory bronchioles
What do respirator bronchioles branch into?
2-11 alveolar ducts
Where do alveolar ducts terminate?
Alveolar sac
What are alveoli?
Outgrowths from the alveolar sac
What is considered the functional unit of the lung?
Pulmonary lobule
What is an acinus?
Round cluster of alveoli, looks like a berry
How many alveoli does each lung contain
Approx 150mil
Where is the site of gas exchange in the lungs?
Alveoli
What allows for passive recoil of alveoli during exhalation?
Surrounding elastic fibres
What are the skeletal muscles of quiet breathing?
Diaphragm and external intercostals
What are the muscles of forced inhalation? 5
SCM
Scalenes
Serratus posterior superior
Pectoralis minor
Erector spinae
What are the muscles of forced exhalation? 5
Transversus thoracis
Serratus posterior inferior
Internal intercostals
External oblique
Transversus abdominis
What are some functions of the digestive system?
Ingestion
Motility
Secretion
Digestion
Absorption
Elimination
What do salivary glands release? What does it breakdown?
Secrete amylase, breaks down sugar
In conjunction with amylase, what allows for antibacterial action in the mouth?
Lysozyme
Bolus
Food mixed with saliva
What structures produce saliva?
Parotid (25%)
Sublingual (5%)
Submandibular (70%)
What structure is inferior to the tongue and separates it?
Lingual frenulum
Deglutition
Swallowing
What are the 3 phases of swallowing?
Voluntary phase
Pharyngeal phase
Esophageal phase
Where is the esophageal hiatus?
Opening in the diaphragm before it connects to the stomach
What is the esophagus covered by and what is its purpose?
Areolar connective tissue called adventitia, anchors to surrounding tissue
Chyme
What the bolus is converted into in the stomach
What are the 3 sections of the small intestine?
Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum
What does the duodenum receive and from where? 2
Digestive enzymes from the pancreas
Bile from the liver and gallbladder
Where does the majority of digestion and absorption occur?
Jejunum of the small intestine
What is the important function of the large intestine?
Absorbs fluids and ions, compacts waste and solidifies them
What are the sections of the large intestine? 6
Cecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
What trunk does the thoracic aorta branch into in the abdomen?
Celiac trunk
In the abdomen, what does the celiac trunk divide into? 3
Left gastric
Splenic
Common hepatic
Below the level of the stomach, what does the thoracic aorta divide into (2)?
Superior mesenteric
Inferior mesenteric
What are the 2 categories that the veins of the arm and forearm are divided into?
Superficial: no corresponding arteries
Deep: corresponding arteries, more valves
What are venae comitantes?
Smaller arteries that have pairs of veins accompanying them
What are 3 examples of venae comitantes?
Brachial artery & brachial veins
Radial artery & radial veins
Ulnar artery & ulnar veins
Where are the superficial veins of the hand primarily found?
Dorsal surface
What does the axillary vein become when it surpasses the first rib?
Subclavian vein
What 2 veins must join to form the brachiocephalic vein?
Subclavian and internal jugular vein
What 2 veins form the superior vena cava?
L and R brachiocephalic veins
What veins are a part of the hepatic portal system? 4
Gastric veins
Splenic veins
Superior mesenteric vein
Inferior mesenteric vein
What are the 2 important superficial veins of the lower extremity?
Great saphenous and small saphenous
What is the largest blood vessel in the body?
Inferior vena cava
What forms the inferior vena cava?
Common iliac veins
What is the function of the lymphatic system? 3
Immune system
Alternate route for transport of various blood bound substances
Return lymph to venous system
Where is the initial site of mechanical and chemical digestion?
Mouth
What is the function of rugae found in the stomach?
Allows for expansion
What are the sections of the large intestine? 6
Cecum
Ascending colon
Transverse colon
Descending colon
Sigmoid colon
Rectum
Where is the parietal and visceral peritoneum found?
Parietal: lines body wall surface
Visceral: lines the internal organs
What is the function of the peritoneal fluid?
Provides lubrication to prevent friction or irritation
What are intraperitoneal organs?
Organs in the peritoneal cavity that are completely surrounded by visceral peritoneum
What are 2 examples of intraperitoneal organs?
Stomach and liver
What are retroperitoneal organs?
Organs that are on the posterior abdominal wall and are only partially covered by peritoneum
What are 4 examples of retroperitoneal organs?
Kidney, pancreas, ureters, major blood vessels
What are mesenteries?
Double sheets of peritoneum
What are the functions of mesenteries?
Support and stabilized GI organs, prevent tangling
What are the 3 types of mesenteries?
Lesser omentum
Greater omentum
Mesentery proper
What does the greater omentum cover?
Extends inferiorly like an apron and covers most abdominal organs
What is the function of the adipose tissue in the greater omentum?
Pads and protects surface of abdomen
Provides insulation to reduce heat loss
Stores lipid reserves
What is the mesocolon?
Peritoneal fold that attaches the colon to the posterior abdominal wall
What are the major lobes of the liver?
Right and left
What separates the right and left lobes of the liver?
Falciform ligament
What does the falciform ligament connect?
The liver to the anterior abdominal wall
Where is the round ligament found?
Base of the falciform ligament (remnant of umbilical vein)
Superiorly what does the falciform ligament divide into?
Coronary ligament
What is the name of the triangular surface that the coronary ligament forms?
Bare area, lack of peritoneal covering
What does the coronary ligament connect?
Suspends the liver from the diaphragm
Hepatic lobule
Unit of the liver
What is included in the portal triad?
Bile duct
Branch of hepatic portal vein
Branch of hepatic artery
What do the bile ductiles form?
Bile ducts
What do the bile ducts form?
Left and right hepatic ducts
What are the 3 anatomical sections of the gallbladder?
Fundus
Body
Neck
What is the function of the pancreas?
Endocrine and exocrine functions
What part of the pancreas performs the endocrine functions?
Pancreatic islets (secrete insulin and glucagon)
What part of the pancreas performs exocrine functions?
Acinar cells (secrete pancreatic juice into duodenum)
What are the functions of the urinary system? 7
Removing waste
Storage of urine
Excretion of urine
BV regulation
RBC regulation
Ion regulation
Acid-base regulation
What are the main components of the urinary system?
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary bladder
Urethra
How is the position of the kidneys stabilized?
Peritoneum
Adjacent visceral organ
Supporting connective tissue
What covers the outer surface of the kidney?
Fibrous capsule
