final exam weeks 7 and 8 Flashcards
problem definiton
gap between a present state and a goal state
dominant approaches to problems = ?
information processing approach and gestalt approach
information processing approach
Involves search for solution using “mean-end analysis” and creating subgoals
- associated with non insight problems
gestalt approach
Problem solving is a process involving restructuring the problem (monk example) → once reconstructed, problem may be easy
- associated with insight problems
restructuring
process of changing a problem’s representation
fixation
people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution
non-insight problem
apply very linear process to solve (math problem; algebra solve for x)
insight problem
aha moment - requires a shift in perspective and view the problem in a novel way to achieve solution
(monk problem)
functional fixedness
effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function
affordness
uses of objects are partly what defines them
mental set
a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, determined by previous knowledge/experience
operators
in problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution
intermediate state
the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states
problem space
initial state, goal state, and all possible states for a particular problem
means end analysis
seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal
analogy
making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things
source problem
a problem or story that is similar to the target problem and provides information that can lead to a solution to the target
surface features
specific elements that make up a problem
analogical paradox
people find it difficult to apply analogies in lab settings, but routinely use them in real-world ones
experise : pros
- more organized knowledge
- solve problems faster
- better snap judgements
- > likely to notice deep features of a problem
expertise : cons
- no better than movies when given problems outside their field
- less likely to be open to new ways of look at problems
deductive reasoning
- top down
making a conclusion based on generally accepted statements or facts
in deductive reasoning, if premises are correct….
conclusion will be correct and will always follow from premises
inductive reasoning
making an inference based on observations
bayesian inference
making predictions based on previous experience
heuristics
a ‘rule of thumb’ that provides a best guess solution to a problem
avaliability heuristic
Events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are not
e.g cows vs sharks; which is more dangerous
illusory correlations
correlation that appears to exist between two events, when in reality, there is no correlation or its is weaker than it is assumed to be
stereotype
a oversimplified generalization about a group of people that often focuses on negative characteristics
Representativeness heuristic
The probability of an event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles the properties of class B
base rate fallacy
tendency to disregard the information on base rates in favour of descriptive information
confirmation bias
tendency to look for information that confirms our beliefs and overlooks information that is against it
myside bias
people generate and test hypothesis in a way that is biased towards their own opinions and attitudes
expected utility theory
assumes people are rational, and will (if they have relevant information) make decisions that result in maximum expected utility (in most desirable outcome given the goals)
- e.g jelly bean example
prospect theory
our decisions reflect values we assign to gains and losses; instead of values we assign to outcomes (influenced by emotions)
risk aversion
tendency to avoid taking risks because we magnify the anticipated negative effects of a possible loss
risk seeking strategy
we attempt to mitigate hte effects of a potential loss by taking a risk
sadder but wiser hypothesis
suggest that being in a sad mood may positively improve decision making by making it more careful and deliberate and less influenced by biases
peoples are more likely to engage in ___ ___ behavior when choices are presented as gains
risk avoiding
people are more likely to engage in ____ _____ behavior when choices are presented as losses
risk taking
when we make a decision, we compare it to what?
context and other decisions
framing
decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated
status quo bias
tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision
opt in / opt out procedure
choosing for/ against a course of action
- people tend not to override the default choice made for them
syllogism
series of 3 statements: two premises followed by a conclusion
validity
quality of a syllogism whose conclusion following logically from its premises
belief bias
tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable or that its invalid if the conclusion is not believable
mental model
a specific situation that is represented in a person’s mind
conditional syllogism
two premises and a conclusion (if..then)
falsificiation principle
reasoning principle that to test a rule, it’s necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule
evolutionary perspective on cognition
idea that many properties of our minds can be traced to the evolutionary principles of natural selection
