final exam weeks 7 and 8

Question 1

problem definiton

Answer 1

gap between a present state and a goal state

Question 2

dominant approaches to problems = ?

Answer 2

information processing approach and gestalt approach

Question 3

information processing approach

Answer 3

Involves search for solution using “mean-end analysis” and creating subgoals
- associated with non insight problems

Question 4

gestalt approach

Answer 4

Problem solving is a process involving restructuring the problem (monk example) → once reconstructed, problem may be easy
- associated with insight problems

Question 5

restructuring

Answer 5

process of changing a problem’s representation

Question 6

fixation

Answer 6

people’s tendency to focus on a specific characteristic of the problem that keeps them from arriving at a solution

Question 7

non-insight problem

Answer 7

apply very linear process to solve (math problem; algebra solve for x)

Question 8

insight problem

Answer 8

aha moment - requires a shift in perspective and view the problem in a novel way to achieve solution
(monk problem)

Question 9

functional fixedness

Answer 9

effect that occurs when the ideas a person has about an object’s function inhibit the person’s ability to use the object for a different function

Question 10

affordness

Answer 10

uses of objects are partly what defines them

Question 11

mental set

Answer 11

a preconceived notion about how to approach a problem, determined by previous knowledge/experience

Question 12

operators

Answer 12

in problem solving, permissible moves that can be made toward a problem’s solution

Question 13

intermediate state

Answer 13

the various conditions that exist along the pathways between the initial and goal states

Question 14

problem space

Answer 14

initial state, goal state, and all possible states for a particular problem

Question 15

means end analysis

Answer 15

seeks to reduce the difference between the initial and goal states. This is achieved by creating subgoals, intermediate states that are closer to the goal

Question 16

analogy

Answer 16

making a comparison in order to show a similarity between two different things

Question 17

source problem

Answer 17

a problem or story that is similar to the target problem and provides information that can lead to a solution to the target

Question 18

surface features

Answer 18

specific elements that make up a problem

Question 19

analogical paradox

Answer 19

people find it difficult to apply analogies in lab settings, but routinely use them in real-world ones

Question 20

experise : pros

Answer 20

• more organized knowledge
• solve problems faster
• better snap judgements
• > likely to notice deep features of a problem

Question 21

expertise : cons

Answer 21

• no better than movies when given problems outside their field
• less likely to be open to new ways of look at problems

Question 22

deductive reasoning

Answer 22

• top down
  making a conclusion based on generally accepted statements or facts

Question 23

in deductive reasoning, if premises are correct….

Answer 23

conclusion will be correct and will always follow from premises

Question 24

inductive reasoning

Answer 24

making an inference based on observations

Question 25

bayesian inference

Answer 25

making predictions based on previous experience

Question 26

heuristics

Answer 26

a ‘rule of thumb’ that provides a best guess solution to a problem

Question 27

avaliability heuristic

Answer 27

Events that are more easily remembered are judged as being more probable than events that are not
e.g cows vs sharks; which is more dangerous

Question 28

illusory correlations

Answer 28

correlation that appears to exist between two events, when in reality, there is no correlation or its is weaker than it is assumed to be

Question 29

stereotype

Answer 29

a oversimplified generalization about a group of people that often focuses on negative characteristics

Question 30

Representativeness heuristic

Answer 30

The probability of an event A comes from class B can be determined by how well A resembles the properties of class B

Question 31

base rate fallacy

Answer 31

tendency to disregard the information on base rates in favour of descriptive information

Question 32

confirmation bias

Answer 32

tendency to look for information that confirms our beliefs and overlooks information that is against it

Question 33

myside bias

Answer 33

people generate and test hypothesis in a way that is biased towards their own opinions and attitudes

Question 34

expected utility theory

Answer 34

assumes people are rational, and will (if they have relevant information) make decisions that result in maximum expected utility (in most desirable outcome given the goals)
- e.g jelly bean example

Question 35

prospect theory

Answer 35

our decisions reflect values we assign to gains and losses; instead of values we assign to outcomes (influenced by emotions)

Question 36

risk aversion

Answer 36

tendency to avoid taking risks because we magnify the anticipated negative effects of a possible loss

Question 37

risk seeking strategy

Answer 37

we attempt to mitigate hte effects of a potential loss by taking a risk

Question 38

sadder but wiser hypothesis

Answer 38

suggest that being in a sad mood may positively improve decision making by making it more careful and deliberate and less influenced by biases

Question 39

peoples are more likely to engage in ___ ___ behavior when choices are presented as gains

Answer 39

risk avoiding

Question 40

people are more likely to engage in ____ _____ behavior when choices are presented as losses

Answer 40

risk taking

Question 41

when we make a decision, we compare it to what?

Answer 41

context and other decisions

Question 42

framing

Answer 42

decisions are influenced by how the choices are stated

Question 43

status quo bias

Answer 43

tendency to do nothing when faced with making a decision

Question 44

opt in / opt out procedure

Answer 44

choosing for/ against a course of action
- people tend not to override the default choice made for them

Question 45

syllogism

Answer 45

series of 3 statements: two premises followed by a conclusion

Question 46

validity

Answer 46

quality of a syllogism whose conclusion following logically from its premises

Question 47

belief bias

Answer 47

tendency to think a syllogism is valid if its conclusion is believable or that its invalid if the conclusion is not believable

Question 48

mental model

Answer 48

a specific situation that is represented in a person’s mind

Question 49

conditional syllogism

Answer 49

two premises and a conclusion (if..then)

Question 50

falsificiation principle

Answer 50

reasoning principle that to test a rule, it’s necessary to look for situations that would falsify the rule

Question 51

evolutionary perspective on cognition

Answer 51

idea that many properties of our minds can be traced to the evolutionary principles of natural selection