Final exam study guide. Flashcards
CH 17 - List the functions of the kidneys
Maintains homeostasis secretes erythropoietin, which helps control the rate of red blood cell production. Helps in activation of vitamin D maintains blood volume and blood pressure by secreting the enzyme renin.
CH 17 - Explain how glomerular filtrate is produced and describe its composition
Glomerular filtrate is literally when glomerular capillaries filter plasma. It is basically plasma with out the protein.
CH 17 - Discuss the role of tubular reabsorption and tubular secretion in urine formation. figure 17.9 and table 17.1
Tubular reabsorption, the body reabsorbs things it still needs. ex. water, electrolytes, and glucose.
Tubular secretion, the body rids itself of things it no longer needs. ex. hydrogen ions, toxins, ect.
CH 17 - Explain the regulation of filtration rate.
figue 17.11
power point slides: 25, 28, 29, 31
It is regulated by sympathetic nervous system that responds to changes in BP and blood volume. If BP or volume drop to much, arterioles vasoconstrict, which decreases glomerular filtration rate. Also regulated by renin. sodium chloride concentration in the tubular fluid decreases, the macula densa senses these changes and causes the juxtaglomerular cells to secrete renin. Renin triggers a series of reactions leading to the production of angiotensin II, which acts as a vasoconstrictor; this may, in turn, affect filtration rate. Presence of angiotensin II also increases the secretion of aldosterone, which stimulates reabsorption of sodium.
CH 17 - Explain the process and control of micturition
parasympathetic motor impulses - detrusor muscle contracts rhythmically - sensation of urgency to pee
CH 8 - Describe how Connective tissue is part of a skeletal muscle
Connective tissue surrounds each individual portion of muscle tissue, epimysium, perimysium, endomysium, and fascia are all connective tissue, as are the tendons that connect muscle to bone.
CH 8 - Explain how a nerve stimulates skeletal muscle contraction.
nerve releases acetylcholine. Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca+2 which binds to troponin. Tropomyosin pulls aside and exposes binding site on actin. Myosin attaches to actin and cocks which pulls the actin and myosin on top of each other (contracting them) new ATP is made for myosin which releases from actin and calcium is released back to Sarcoplasmic reticulum.
CH 8 - Explain the role of Calcium in skeletal muscle contraction.
Sarcoplasmic reticulum releases Ca+2 which binds to troponin/ exposes binding sites on actin. Without this exposure, myosin and actin couldn’t bind to each other.
CH 8 - Explain the energy sources for muscle fiber contraction.
ATP molecules supply energy for muscle fiber contraction. However there is only enough ATP to supply it for a short time, then cells must regenerate ATP from ADP, creatine phosphate makes this possible. Creatine phosphate is 4-6x’s more abundant than ATP.
ATP, Creatine Phosphate, Glycolysis
CH 8 - Review the differences between Skeletal, Smooth, & Cardiac muscle as summarized by Table 8.3.
Skeletal - striated, many nuclei, transverse tubules, voluntary action, contracts and releases rapidly.
Smooth - no striation, single nucleus, no transverse tubules, involuntary, contracts and relaxes slowly, self-exciting, rhythmic.
Cardiac - striated, single nucleus, transverse tubules, intercalated discs, involuntary, network of cells contract as a unit, self exciting, rhythmic.
CH 9 - List and describe the different types of NEUROGLIAL cells.
Microglial cells - phagocytize bacteria, form scars in damaged areas. Oligodendrocytes - insulate CNS with myelin sheaths. Astrocytes - provide structural support, also forms scars. Ependymal cells - epithelial-like membrane that covers brain parts. *Schwann cells - myelanate the PNS.
CH 9 - Classify neurons based on Structure and Classify them based on Function.
Structure - multipolar, bipolar, unipolar. Function - Sensory(afferent, arrives), Interneurons(in the brain and spinal chord only, transmit and receives), Motor(efferent, exits). Please note: the dendrite receives, the axon sends.
Ch 9 - Explain how information passes from one neuron to another.
The synapse - Axon packages up synaptic vesicles (packages filled with neurotransmitters) and sends them out the synaptic knob, across the synaptic cleft. Synaptic Knobs (package receivers) on the dendrite pick up the signal, which is either excitatory or inhibitory.
CH 9 - In the brain, explain the location and function of the basal nuclei.
Basal nuclei (basal ganglia) are in each cerebral hemisphere. They produce dopamine (inhibitory). Neurons interact with other parts of the brain and through a combination of stimulus, they facilitate voluntary movement.
CH 9 - Distinguish the difference in structure (neuron length, neurotransmitters, section of spinal cord) and function (affect on organ systems) between the Parasympathetic and Sympathetic nervous system.
Sympathetic - preganglionic fibers come from neurons in gray matter of spinal cord, axons leave the cord through the ventral roots(anterior root) in the first thoracic through the second lumbar segments. Prepares body for energy-expending, stressful, emergency situation (fight or flight). Parasympathetic - preganglionic fibers come from the brainstem and sacral region. They are relatively short. Prepares body for resting conditions, low heart rate. (rest and digest).
CH 10 - Explain the mechanism for smell.
Olfactory receptor cells are bipolar neurons with hairlike cilia which cover tiny knobs at the distal ends/dendrites. Oderant molecules enter nose as gas but dissolve in watery fluid that surround cilia. A combination of receptors are stimulated which tells the brain to interpret as a certain smell.
CH 10 - Explain the mechanism for taste.
Each taste bud has 50 - 150 taste cells (modified epithelial cells). Each taste cell has a taste pore surrounded by taste hairs. (taste hairs receive input). Nerve fibers are interwoven throughout. Watery fluid dissolves the chemical so food molecules can bind to receptor protein, which are embedded in taste hairs. Taste hair stimulates the nerve fiber, which sends signal to the brain.
CH 10 - List the steps in generation of sensory impulses from the ear.
Sound waves enter external acoustic meatus. Waves change pressure on eardrum which vibrates. maleus, incus, and stapes, then the vibrate oval window. Perilymph in scala vestibule receive vibrations from the oval window. vibrations pass through the vestibular membrane and enter endolymph of cochlear duct. Different frequencies of vibration in endolymph stimulate different sets of receptor cells. Receptor cells depolarize and are permeable to calcium ions. Calcium ions diffuse in and receptor cell releases neurotransmitter. neurotransmitter stimulates ends of nearby sensory neurons. sensory impulses are triggered on fibers of cochlear branch of vestbulocochlear nerve. Auditory cortex of temporal lobs interpret sensory impulses.
Sound waves vibrate eardrum - males, incus, stapes, oval window - Perilymph - endolymph - receptor cells are stimulated - they depolarize and calcium ions permeate cells - neurotransmitter releases and stimulates sensory neurons - impulses trigger fibers of cochlear branch - auditory cortex interprets impulses.
CH 10 - Explain the difference and structures that sense Static equilibrium vs Dynamic equilibrium.
Static equilibrium - The utricle and saccule in the vestibule each have a macula. Maculae have little hairs (sensory receptors). The hairs project into a mass of gelatinous material, which has grains of calcium carbonate (otoliths) embedded in them. The particles add weight. As you move your head, the gelatinous material move/ sag in response to gravity. The hairs projecting in them bend, which sends signal to the brain telling it you moved your head. Dynamic equilibrium - The semi-circular canals deter motion of the head during sudden movements. They lie at right angles to each other and each corresponds to a different anatomical plane. In each canal there is an ampulla with an organ called crust ampularis. They contain hair cells and supporting cells, which extend into gelatinous mass called cupula. As you move the hairs stimulate the same as with in the macula.
CH 10 - Map the visual nerve pathway and name the structures that generate a sensory impulse and the path it follows to the visual cortex.
Axons of the retinal neurons - optic nerves - x-shaped optic chiasma - medial half of each retina cross over - lateral half doesn’t cross over. Just before entering the thalamus, some fibers enter nuclei that function in visual reflexes, but most fibers enter the thalamus. Visual impulses enter nerve pathways called optic radiations, which lead to the visual cortex of the occipital lobes.
CH 11 - Briefly List the major endocrine glands with their location and function/what they regulate.
Hypothalamus, brain: controls the release of hormones from he pituitary gland, body temperature, food and water intake, hunger and thirst.
Pituitary gland, below hypothalamus: Growth hormone, which regulates growth, metabolism and body composition.
Pineal gland, brain: controls sleep and wake.
Thyroid, larynx: control metabolism, growth, body temperature, muscle strength, appetite, and the health of your heart, brain, kidneys, and reproductive system.
Parathyroid, behind thyroid: controls calcium levels.
Thymus, behind sternum: immune system (training T cells).
Adrenal glands, top of kidney: reaction to stress, metabolism, sugar levels, blood pressure.
Kidney, low back: erythropoietin (red blood cells production) and renin ( blood pressure).
Pancreas, behind stomach: digestive enzymes, insulin.
Ovary/ Testes… you know what these do, don’t get crazy.
CH 11 - Briefly List the hormones of the pituitary gland and their main function/target cell.
Growth Hormone (GH)
Prolactin (PRL) - lactate, breast milk.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) - hormones from adrenal cortex.
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) - egg-containing follicles in ovaries and production of sperm.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) - sex hormones, releases egg.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) - makes you not pee.
Oxytocin (OT) - contractions and milk-secretion.
CH 11 - Explain the role of the thyroid gland and its participation in homeostasis.
rate of energy release from carbs, increases rate of protein synthesis, growth, stimulates activity in nervous system, lowers blood calcium and phosphate ions.
CH 11 - List and briefly explain the function of the hormones of the adrenal gland.
Epinephrine - sympathetic norepinephrine - parasympathetic.
is this right?
CH 11 - Explain the role of the pancreas and its regulation of glucose levels in the blood.
digestive enzymes and insulin.
CH 12 - Distinguish between the formed elements and the plasma of blood.
Formed elements - cells and platelets
Plasma - Liquid portion.
CH 12 - Summarize the life cycle of a red blood cell.
Low O2 stimulates blood cell production. At first they have a nucleus but it is extruded as the cell ages. They live for about 120 days until they become weak and are damaged. Macrophages eat them up. Globen is broken down into amino acids and recycled The rest is made into biliverdin and bilirubin. Bilirubin is excreted in bile and feces.
CH 12 - Describe the control and stimulating factors of Red Blood Cell production
Low oxygen - liver and kidney release erythropoietin - it stimulates red bone marrow to make more red blood cells.
CH 12 - Briefly describe the mechanisms that contribute to Hemostasis.
Receptor (notices low oxygen), control center ( tells the liver and kidney to release erythropoietin, effector (red bone marrow makes more red blood cells).
CH 12 - Explain blood typing and which type is the universal donor.
Blood contains antigens (blood marker) and antibody ( fights off incompatible blood types). O- has no marker and is the universal donor. AB+ has all markers and is universal recipient.
CH 13 - Distinguish between the Coverings of the heart and the layers of the heart wall.
Coverings - Fibrous pericardium, parietal pericardium, visceral pericardium Layers - epicardium, myocardium, endocardium.
CH 13 - Trace the pathway of a drop of blood through the heart and the coronary vessels.
Vena Cava - right atrium - tricuspid valve - right ventricle - pulmonary valve - pulmonary branch - lungs - left pulmonary veins - left atrium - mitral valve - left ventricle - aortic valve - aorta.
CH 13 - Discuss the Cardiac Conduction System. Which part sets the rate and rhythm of the heart?
SA node sets the rhythm. AV node is secondary to that. conduction system path - SA node - Atrial syncytium - Junctional fibers - AV node - AV bundle - bundle branches - purkinje fibers - ventricular syncytium
CH 13 - Describe how substances are exchanged between blood in capillaries and the tissue fluid surrounding cells.
Diffusion - higher concentration to lower concentration Filtration - movement through the membrane due to hydrostatic pressure. (high pressure forces molecules through) osmosis - water moves through a membrane toward a concentration of an impermeant solute.
CH 13 - Describe the different mechanisms that help return venous blood to the heart.
Skeletal muscle contraction Breathing movements Vasoconstriction *This won’t be the answer he’s looking for, but venous valves prevent back flow.
CH 14 - Describe the formation of lymph fluid and its function.
Tissue fluid is blood plasma and dissolved substances that don’t get reabsorbed into the capillaries. Hydrostatic pressure moves fluid into lymphatic capillaries, once it enters the lymphatic system it is lymph (fluid).
CH 14 - Explain how the body maintains lymphatic circulation.
skeletal muscle activity, smooth muscle activity, and pressure changes from breathing.
CH 14 - Describe the overall location and function of lymph nodes.
*located along lymphatic pathways. *contain B cells and T cells (fight infection) and macrophages (eats the garbage).
CH 14 - Differentiate between the innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (specific) defenses against infection.
Innate - species resistance, mechanical barriers, chemical barriers (enzymes, interferon, and complement), natural killer cells, inflammation, phagocytosis, and fever. Adaptive - immunity, specialized lymphocytes recognize foreign molecules and act against them. Adaptive responses develop slowly.
CH 14 - Compare and contrast B-Cells from T-Cells.
*B cells originate and differentiate in the red bone marrow. They are located in the lymphatic tissues, 20-30% of the circulating lymphocytes. They provide humoral immune response in which B cells interact indirectly, producing antibodies that destroy the antigens or antigen-bearing agents. *T cells originate in Red bone marrow, they differentiate in the thymus, they are located in lymphatic tissues 70-80% of the circulating lymphocytes, and they provide cellular immune response in which T cells interact directly with the antigens or antigen-bearing agents to destroy them.
CH 15 - Name and briefly describe the function of the major organs of the digestive system.
mouth (mastication, saliva),
pharynx (passage way for breathing and swallowing),
esophagus (leads to stomach),
stomach (gastric juice/ digestion and some absorption),
small intestine duodemum and jejumum is where most absorption happens(completes digestion and absorption),
large intestine (absorbs water and electrolytes, forms and stores feces),
rectum, and anus.
CH 15 - Describe the structure of the Wall of the alimentary canal and how it changes from the mouth to the anus.
*Mucosa *Submucosa *Muscular layer *Serosa
