Final exam (70% new material, 30% from the midterms) Flashcards
1
Q
What are the 4 basic digestive processes of the digestive system? (simple)
A
1) Motility
2) Secretion
3) Digestion
4) Absorption
2
Q
(Digestion) What is Motility? (simple)
A
Muscular contractions that cause mixing and moving material along the digestive tract.
(eg) smooth muscle helps with this
3
Q
(Digestion) What is Secretion? (Simple)
A
Secretion of digestive enzymes
(eg) bile, salt, mucus, hormones, buffers
4
Q
(Digestion) What is Digestion? (simple)
A
Chemical breakdown of large food molecules into smaller sub-units for absorption.
5
Q
(Digestion) What is Absorption? (simple)
A
Small particles transported from the digestive tract across cells that line the digestive tract, then into the blood or lymph.
6
Q
What mechanical processes break down food for digestion and why?
A
Chewing, swallowing, bile.
Turns food into chunks to increase surface area.
(more SA for enzymes to act on for CHEMICAL digestion)
7
Q
What type of reaction occur when digestive enzymes break the chemical bonds in large molecules?
A
HYDROLYSIS
(catabolic pathway) breaks down. does not require energy. releases energy actually.
*water is used to break down a large molecule by inserting itself into it and connecting to the functional groups. O and OH on each new molecule)
8
Q
6 major organs of the digestive system?
A
1) Oral cavity
2) Pharynx
3) Esophagus
4) Stomach
5) Small intestine
6) Large intestine
9
Q
What does the oral cavity do for digestion?
A
- Ingestion
- Mechanical digestion with accessory organs (teeth, tongue)
- Moistening, mixing (creating more SA)
- Salivary secretions
10
Q
What does the Pharynx do for digestion?
A
Uses muscular propulsion to push the food (bolus) into the esophagus
11
Q
What does the esophagus do fro digestion?
A
Transport materials from the mouth to the stomach
12
Q
What does the stomach do for digestion?
A
-Chemical digestion of materials by acid and enzymes
-Mechanical digestion through muscular contractions.
13
Q
What does the small intestine do for the digestive system?
A
Enzymatic digestion
Absorption of water, organic substrates, vitamins, ions.
14
Q
What does the large intestine do for the digestive system?
A
Dehydration and compaction of indigestible materials in preparation for elimination (POOP)
15
Q
What are proteins?
A
Monomer=Amino acid
Multiple amino acids bonded together= peptide
Multiple peptides=polypeptide (large molecule)
16
Q
What are carbohydrates?
A
Monomer=monosaccharides (Glucose)
2 monomers= disaccharides
Many monosaccharides together = Polysaccharide (Starch)
17
Q
What are lipids? (digestion)
A
Triglycerides = 3 fatty acids 1 glycerol
(often get digested into 2 free fatty acids and 1 monoglyceride) (1 glucerol with 1 fatty acid attached)
18
Q
What are nucleic acids? (digestion)
A
Polymer = DNA, RNA. broken down into nitrogenous bases and sugars
19
Q
How do carbohydrates get digested?
A
Oral cavity (salivary amylase) (carbs are now disaccharide and trisaccharide)
Stomach (Proenzyme)
Sm Intestines (Pancreatic amylase)
*carbohydrates (polysaccharide), di/trisaccharide, monosaccharide)
20
Q
How do lipids get digested?
A
Oral cavity (Lingual lipase)
Stomach (nada)
Sm Intestine (Bile, salts, pancreatic lypase)
-Monoglyceride and fatty acids
21
Q
How do proteins get digested?
A
Oral cavity (nada)
Stomach (pepsin)
Sm Intestine (Trypsin, Chymotrypsin, Elastase, Carboxypeptidase)
-short peptides, amino acids
22
Q
Salivary amylase. Wheres is active, whats its substrate and what are the products?
A
Oral cavity (salivary glands)
Polysaccharides (starch)
Disaccharides (maltose) and trisaccharide
23
Q
Lingual lipase. Wheres it active, whats its substrate and what are the products?
A
Oral cavity (glands on tongue)
Lipids (triglycerides)
monoglycerides + 2 fatty acids
24
Q
Pepsin. Wheres it active, whats it substrate and what are the products?
A
Stomach (produced by cheif cells)
Proteins
Small peptides and amino acids
25
Proteases (Chymotrypsin/ trypsin) Wheres it active, whats its substrate and what are the products?
Small intestine (Secreted by pancreas tho)
Proteins
Short chain peptides
26
Pancreatic amylase. Wheres it active, whats its substrate and what are the products?
Small intestine (secreted by pancreas tho)
Carbohydrates (polysaccharides -starch)
Di/trisaccharides
27
Pancreatic lipase. Wheres it active, whats its substrate and what are the products?
Small intestine (secreted by pancreas tho)
Lipids (triglycerides)
Monoglycerides + 2 fatty acids
28
Disaccharidases (Maltase). Wheres it active, whats its substrates and what are the products?
Small intestine
Disaccharides (Maltose)
Monosaccharides (glucose)
29
Disaccharidases (Sucrase). Wheres it active, whats its substrate and what are the products?
Small intestine
Disacchardies (Sucrose)
Monosaccharides (glucose/fructose)
30
Disaccharidases (Lactase). Wheres it active, whats its substrates and what are the products?
Small intestine
Disaccharides (lactose)
monosaccharides (galactose and glucose)
31
Peptidases and Dipeptidases. Wheres it active, whats its subtrate and what are the products?
Small intestine
Short peptides
Amino acids
32
What are the 3 main types of disaccharidases?
Maltase
Sucrase
Lactase
33
What is Emulsification?
Physically breaking down fats (lipids) into into small enough droplets in order for digestion to be effective.
Done by BILE (produces in the liver, secreted from the GALLBLADDER)
*Takes place in the small intestine
34
What is absorption? (Digestion)
How molecules from the the outside of the body to the digestive tract across and through cells. (into cells)
**for absorption to occur molecules need to be broken down (digested) first
35
What is transport? (Digestion)
How molecules are moved/ circulated around the body (lymph or blood)
36
What substances can be absorbed WITHOUT being broken down first? (Digestion)
Vitamins
Minerals
Water
37
Where does most absorption occur?
Small intestine
-The Duodenum and Jejunum
*1st and 2nd part of small intestine
38
How are carbohydrates absorbed once theyve been broken down into monosaccharides? (Digestion)
They enter capillaries in the villi (plr villus) in the small intestine
*via Secondary active transport (into epithelial) & Facilitated diffusion (out of epithelial into blood)
39
How are proteins absorbed once they've been broken down into amino acids? (Digestion)
They enter capillaries in the villi (plr villus) in the small intestine
*via Secondary/ Tertiary active transport (into epithelial cell) & facilitated diffusion (out of epithelial into blood)
40
How are lipids absorbed once they've been broken down? (Digestion)
They're packed as CHYLOMICRONS and enter the LACTEAL in the villi (plr villus) in the small intestine
*Diffuse into intestinal cell. EXOCYTOSIS out of the cell in lymph
41
How do the monosaccharides GLUCOSE, GALACTOSE and FRUCTOSE enter the intestinal epithelium ?
Glucose/ Galactose: Secondary active transport
Fructose: Facilitated diffusion
42
What do intestinal epithelial cells have on their apical surface?
Peptidases
Break down small peptides into amino acids
43
What are broken down lipids called in the small intestine?
Micelles (small hydrophobic molecules surrounded by bile and salts)
*lipid portions of micelles pass through membrane by simple diffusion
*(in epithelial cell) Chylomicrons form (lipids coated with proteins) move out of cell via exocytosis
44
How is water absorbed in the digestive system?
Osmosis dummy.
In the small intestine and colon
45
Name 3 types of electrolytes (ions) and where are they absorbed?
Na+ (passively and actively)
K+ (passively)
Ca2+ (actively)
Small intestine and colon
46
How do water soluble vitamins get absorbed? (Digestive)
Diffuse across digestive epithelium.
*B12 must be bound to intrinsic factor and then gets absorbed via Active transport
47
How do lipid soluble vitamins get absorbed? and list some lipid soluble vitamins aswell (Digestive)
(absorbed with other digested lipids)
A D E K
48
Tell me the pathway of water soluble molecules (carbs/ proteins) take in the digestive system?
Digested into intestinal epithelial cell then into blood capillary
carried in the blood stream to the liver via the hepatic portal system
Then back to the heart and around the body
49
Can fats pass directly into the blood stream?
No you fucking idiot
They pass into the intestinal epithelial cells then into a lacteal cell of the lymphatic system
50
What are the 6 main hormones that regulate digestive functions?
1) Gastrin
2) Secretin
3) Gastric Inhibitory Peptide (GIP)
4) Cholecystokinin (CCK)
5) Vasoactive Intestinal Peptide (VIP)
6) Enterocrinin
Go Suck Garys Cock. Very Entertaining
51
Tell me some shit about Gastrin? What is it, wheres it secreted, what stimulates it?
-Digestive hormone
-Its secreted from cells in the stomach and duodenum.
-Stimulated by: Arrival of food and stretching of stomach. As well as the VAGUS VIII (ANS nervous system) and arrival of Chyme (in duodenum) with large amounts of protein
52
What does Gatrin cause in the digestive system?
It causes MORE gastric secretions (acids and enzymes) and increased gastric motility (muscle activity in the stomach)
53
Tell me some shit about Secretin? What is it, wheres it secreted, what stimulates it and what does it do
-Digestive hormone
-Secreted from cells in the duodenum
-Stimulated by: Arrival of acidic chyme in small intestine.
-Causes the pancreas to release bicarbonate ions (to neutralize the chyme) which stimulates the liver to secrete bile
-It inhibits gastric secretion and decreases gastric motility
54
Pathway of secretin?
Secretin gets stimulated (by chyme)
Presence of Secretin causes pancreas to release bicarbonate ions to neutralize the acidic chyme.
and caused liver to produce bile
55
What is the other name for the GIP (gastric inhibitory peptide)?
Glucose-dependent Insulinotropic hormone (GIP)
56
Tell me about GIP hormone. Where is it secreted, what stimulates it, what does it do? (Digestion)
-Secreted by cells in the duodenum
-Stimulated by Fatty acids and glucose in chyme
-Stimulates the release of insulin from pancreas and lipid synthesis glucose use.
-Inhibits acid production and peristalsis in the stomach (slows rate of chyme being dumped into small intestine)
57
Tell me about Cholecystokinin (CCK) hormone. What is it, what secretes it, what stimulates it?
-Secreted by cell in the duodenum
-Stimulated by arrival of chyme with fatty acids and partially broken down proteins in it.
-CCK stimulates the gallbladder to release bile as well as the pancreas releasing digestive enzymes.
-Inhibits gastric secretion.
58
Vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) hormone. What secretes it, what stimulates it?
-Secreted by cells in the duodenum
-Stimulated by arrival of chyme
-Stimulates secretions in the small intestine and INHIBITS acid production in the stomach and dilates intestinal capillaries to aid in removal of absorbed nutrients.
59
Enterocrinin hormone. What secretes it and what stimulates it?
-Secreted in the duodenum when chyme is there.
-Stimulates mucin production by submucosal glands
60
How does the Nervous system play a role in digestion?
Responds to sight, smell, taste and thought of food.
Stimulates the release of salivary amylase
Signals the stomach to release acid and gastrin.
61
What are the 3 phases of gastric sectretion?
1) Cephalic phase
2) Gastric phase
3) Intestinal phase
62
Cephalic phase (1). What is it?
Starts with sight, smell, taste and thought of food.
CNS sends signals to stomach to prepare for arrival of food. (Vagus VIII nerve)
Overall effect of the cephalic phase: Increased production of gastric juices (pepsin, mucus, HCI)
63
Gastric phase (2). What is it?
Starts when food arrives in the stomach. Distension (stretching of stomach walls).
Increase of stomach pH (more basic)
Stimulates an increase of gastric secretions (enzymes, acids) aswell as gastrin hormone release
Contracts the muscularis externa (churning).
64
Intestinal phase (3). Tell me about it?
Starts with arrival of chyme in the duodenum. (detected by stretch and chemoreceptors)
Slows down stomach activity so the small intestine has time to process chyme efficiently. (*Enterogastic or Local reflex)
Increase of mucus production in small intestine.
Uses GIP, CCK and Secretin hormone
65
Do local reflexes involve the CNS?
NOPE
66
What local reflexes are there during the Gastric phase (2)?
Stretch receptors and chemoreceptors.
*stimulate myenteric and submucosal plexuses....wtf. Leads to increased gastric activity
67
What local reflexes are there during the Intestinal phase (3) ?
Stretch receptors and chemoreceptors. (in duodenum + stomach)
*they inhibit activity in the myenteric plexus. Leads to decreased gastric activity. also stimulates secretion of mucus
**this is an ENTEROGASTRIC reflex
68
Do central reflexes involve the CNS?
YES
69
How do central reflexes work?
They are triggered by the stimulus of stretch receptors in stomach wall and send signals to the CNS.
70
What is the gastroenteric reflex?
Central reflex (uses CNS)
Receptors in stomach send signal to CNS and it sends signals to small intestine.
Increases motility and secretion along small intestine.
71
What is the Gastroileal reflex?
Central reflex (use CNS)
Receptors in stomach send signal to CNS and it sends signals to ileum (ileocecal valve)
Stimulates the opening of ileocecal valve which moves materials from small intestine into large intestine to make room for the new material the stomach is digesting.
72
What is metabolism?
The sum of all chemical reactions that occur in an organism.
73
What is cellular metabolism?
Chemical reactions within cells that produce energy.
74
4 things your cells need energy for?
1) Metabolic turnover (repair and cell maintenance)
2) Growth and cell division
3) Secretion, contraction, active transport
4) Storage and nutrient reserve
75
What is catabolism?
Breaking down organic molecules (cats break shit)
Release energy (exergonic)
*40% used by cell. 60% lost
76
What is anabolism?
Building up organic molecules.
Store energy
Requires energy (endergonic)
*usually have "coupled" reactions. (Energy released by one reactions fuels another)
77
What is the equation for photosynthesis?
6CO2 + 6H2O + light energy ---------> C6H12O6 + 6O2
78
What is the equation for Glucose metabolism? (cellular respiration)
C6H12O6 + 6O2 -----> 6H2O + 6CO2 + energy (ATP)
79
Photosynthesis. Where does it occur and what does it convert?
Occurs in the chloroplasts of plants.
Converts solar energy (photons) into glucose (stored energy)
Used by the plant of anything that eats the plant
80
Tell me about Glycolysis?
Occurs in the cytoplasm (not the mitochondria). Does not require O2 to produce energy.
1 6carbon glucose molecule gets broken down into 2 3carbon pyruvates.
Uses 2 ATP. Makes 4 ATP. Net gain 2 ATP and 2 NADH
81
Consider similarities and difference s between spermatogenesis and oogenesis
negative feedback positive feedback?
82
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone) where is it produced and what does it do?
Hypothalamus. stimulates the gonadotropins (FSH and LH)
83
What is FSH? what does it do?
Follicle stimulating hormone. released by anterior pituitary (in response to GnRH) Targets the interstitial cells (outside of seminiferous tubules) and stimulates spermatogenesis.
84
What is LH? what does it do?
85
What does progesterone do for the Female reproductive system?
Secreted by corpus luteum
Inhibits GnRH (so FSH and LH as well)
development of endometrium
if no fertilization, corpus luteum shuts's down
86
Describe what happens in the Luteal phase?
Corpus luteum is formed from the empty tertiary follicle
cells begin secreting progesterone (plus some estrogens)
Corpus Luteum eventually breaks down, forms corpus albicans.
87
Describe what happens in ovulation?
Tertiary follicle ruptures and releases the secondary oocyte (Including its close support cells)
88
Describe what happens during the follicular phase?
Primordial, primary, secondary and tertiary (mature) follicles form
oocyte surrounded by these follicles gradually grown larger and more specialized
Eventually forms a large chamber called the "antrum"
89
Name the three phases of the ovarian cycle.
Follicular phase, ovulation, Luteal phase
90
What is Hemopoiesis? Where does it occur?
Occurs in the red bone marrow. It is the process of blood cell formation from pluripotent stem cells.
91
There are two kinds of pluripotent stem cells (also called Hemocytoblasts) what are they?
Myeloid stem cells and Lymphoid stem cells
92
What kind of blood cells do Myeloid Stem cells produce?
RBC's, granulocytes, platelets, monocytes. Also Neutrophils, basophils and megakaryocytes.
93
What kind of blood cells do Lymphoid stem cells produce?
Different kinds lymphocytes (T cells and B cells)
94
Erythropoiesis, the production of red blood cells is stimulated/increased by what two hormones?
Testosterone and EPO (erythropoietin produced in the kidneys).
95
When Hemoglobin is recycled it breaks down. What 3 things do they break down into?
Biliverdin (from heme)
Iron (from heme)
Amino acids (from globin)
96
When amino acids are broken down from Hemoglobin (globin particularly) how is it reused?
Amino Acids will contribute to the synthesis of other proteins and also some hemoglobin production.
97
When Iron is broken down from the heme how is it reused? where does it go?
The Iron is transported into the red bone marrow to help the production of new RBC's
98
When Biliverdin is broken down from heme how is it reused? where does it go?
It gets transported to the liver to be made into bilirubin (part of bile) then excreted via urine or feces as waste.
99
What is the endocrine system? (super simple)
Second control system of the body. (in addition to the nervous system)
Responses are prolonged. (few seconds to a few days) compared to the nervous system
100
Tell me about endocrine glands?
Organs that make hormones that are released directly into surrounding tissue fluid then into the blood or lymph and travel to tissues and organs all over the body.
DONT have ducts
101
Examples of endocrine glands?
Hypothalamus
Pituitary gland
Pineal
Thyroid
Parathyroid
Thymus
Adrenal
*also endocrine tissues in the pancreas and gonads
102
What are 5 ways cells communicate in the endocrine system?
1) Gap junctions (cell to cell communicate)
2) Neurotransmitters
3) Paracrine secretions (effect local cells)
4) Hormones (endocrine secretions)
5) Pheromones (effect other individuals)
103
What is a hormone?
- Chemical messenger made by endocrine system
- Long distance signals (travel in blood and lymph all around the body)
- Regulate metabolic functions of other cells (speed up or slow down)
- Are either Amino acid based or lipid based (hydrophilic or hydrophobic)
104
What 2 ways are hormones transported in the blood?
1) Bound to transport protein: (hydrophobic hormones). must dissociate from the protein to in order to leave the blood.
2) Unbound (free in the plasma): (hydrophilic hormones). + small % of hydrophobic ones.
105
What type of hormones have a longer half life, Hydrophobic or hydrophilic ones?
Hydrophobic hormones have a longer half life
106
Half-life. How are hormones eliminated from the blood stream?
1) When they diffuse out of the blood
2) Absorbed or broken down (by cells of the liver or kidney)
3) Broken down by enzymes in the blood or interstitial fluid.
107
What must hormones do in order to have an effect in the body?
Must bind to receptors on the surface or inside of a target cell.
108
Hormones. Tell me about Membrane-bound receptors (extracellular)
Hydrophilic Hormone binds to receptor attached to the cell membrane (surface).
-Require a "Second messenger" (cAMP)
109
Hormones. Tell me about Intracellular receptors.
Hydrophobic hormones bind to receptors floating around inside the cytoplasm, enter the nucleus, directly effect transcription and trnaslation.
110
2 examples of Intracellular hormones
1) Steroid hormone: diffuse through plasma membrane, bind to receptors in cytoplasm or nucleus. --> DNA ---> gene activation.
2) Thyroid hormone: Transports across plasma membrane, binds to receptors at mitochondria and nucleus --> DNA --> gene activation (along with more ATP produced).
111
Explain hemostasis in simple terms.
the stoppage of bleeding after injury.
112
Name the three modes of action for hemostasis to occur.
(muscle)
Vascular spasm
platelet plug formation
coagulation (blood clotting)
113
What happens during the "Vascular Spasm" phase of hemostasis?
The temporary constriction of blood vessels to minimize blood loss from the affected area. Specific chemicals are released from platelets in a platelet plug.
114
What are the 3 main ways that endocrine glands control their hormone secretions?
1) Humoral stimuli: (changes in composition of ECF)
2) Neural stimuli: (neurotransmitters released at neroglandular junctions)
3) Hormonal stimuli: (levels of one hormone effecting that same hormone or other hormones)
115
Example of hormone control?
Stress or exercise stimulate the brain, then the adrenal medulla released norepinephrine and epinephrine
116
How do endocrine "reflexes" work?
1) Change in composition of extracellular fluids (levels or certain chemicals or the presence of certain chemicals).
2) That leads to change in endocrine cells (which leads to levels of hormones secreted).
3) Secreted hormones adjust the activities of target cells.
4) Homeostasis is restored
**NEGATIVE FEEDBACK (bringing back to normal range)
117
What are exocrine glands? and give me some examples
Glands that secrete substances through a duct or opening to a body surface.
(eg) Sweat glands secrete sweat. Salivary glands secrete saliva. Mammary glands secrete milk. Digestive glands. Tear (lacrimal) glads secrete tears.
118
Describe what happens in the platelet plug formation (platelet phase) in Hemostasis.
Three steps:
Platelet adhesion (platelets stick to the exposed collagen)
Platelet aggregation (Platelets attached to the collagen begin sticking to other platelets).
Degranulation, the activated platelets release various factors like ADP (Adenosine diphosphate) PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor) and Ca2+ molecules.
119
What does the endocrine system do? (general terms)
-Growth
-Development
-Reproduction
-Regulation of metabolism (longer slower process)
120
Give a brief explanation of what ADP does (adenosine diphosphate).
Triggers the binding of fibrinogen to platelet receptors, resulting in fibrinogen "bridges" that connect platelets together.
121
What does the nervous system do? (general terms)
-Sensory perception
-Movements
-(rapid, short lived processes)
122
Who responds to stimulus faster, endocrine system or nervous system?
Nervous system (shorter amount of time to respond to stimulus)
123
Whose response duration is longer, endocrine system or nervous system?
Endocrine system (longer duration time for responding)
124
Describe the events of Coagulation in hemostasis.
Factor X produces prothrombinase which converts prothrombin into thrombin, thrombin then converts fibrinogen to fibrin.
125
Are chemicals used to communicate with target cells in the endocrine and nervous system? if yes which chemicals are used
Endocrine system: YES (Hormones)
Nervous system: YES (Neurotransmitters)
126
What role does Ca2+ and vitamin K have in Coagulation?
Ca2+: Binds to phospholipids, provides a surface for an assembly of coagulation factors.
Vitamin K: Involved in the activation of blood-clotting proteins.
127
List 3 examples of Hydrophobic hormones? (intracellular hormones)
Aldosterone
Testosterone
Estrogen
128
Explain the steps of an Extrinsic Coagulation pathway.***
Damaged tissue releases factors that start the process (requires Ca2+) . Ultimately results in the activation of factor X which will release prothrombinase.
129
List 3 examples of Hydrophilic hormones (extracellular hormones)
Insulin
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Luteinizing hormone
130
Explain the steps of an intrinsic Coagulation pathway.***
Starts when a factor in the plasma reaches exposed collagen of a damaged vessel (requires Ca2+). Ultimately results in the activation of factor X which will release prothrombinase.
131
Which hormones are "bound" and "unbound" to transport proteins in the blood?
Hyrdophobic hormones: BOUND
Hydrophilic hormones: UNBOUND
132
Which type of hormone last in the bodies fluids for longer periods of tiem and for shorter periods of time?
Hydrophobic hormones: Last longer
(since they are protected by transport proteins)
Hydrophilic hormones: Last shorter
133
Which type of hormones are intracellular (attach to receptors inside target cells) and extracellular (attach to receptors on the surface of target cells)?
Intracellular: Hydrophobic hormones
Extracellular: Hydrophilic hormones
134
briefly give the similarities and differences between extrinsic and intrinsic coagulation pathways.
Similarities: Both require Ca2+ to start the process of coagulation. Both ultimately result in the activation of factor X and release of prothrombinase.
Differences: Extrinsic requires external tissue damage to kickstart the process whereas intrinsic is when plasma reaches exposed collagen of a damaged vessel internally.
135
Which type of hormone DIRECTLY affects gene activation?
HYDROPHOBIC hormones
136
Which type of hormone has a second messenger?
HYDROPHILIC hormones
*second messenger is usually cAMP (cyclic AMP)
137
What would happen if a clot formed in a diseased or damaged blood vessel that wasn't at risk of losing blood.
A thrombus (blood clot) could attach itself to the vessel wall. if that thrombus detaches it becomes an embolus ( a moving blood clot)
138
Give some examples of a negative effect a thrombus or embolus could have by blocking a blood vessel (Ischemia).
A thrombus or embolus in the heart could cause myocardial infarction (heart attack). In the brain it could cause a stroke. Thrombus and embolus have severe damaging effects to the body.
139
What two B vitamins contribute to the formation of RBC's?
Vitamin B12 and folate. They are needed for the synthesis of DNA/Cell division.
140
Define Pluripotent stem cell.
A cell that is able to develop into many different types of cells or tissues in the body.
141
What is an interesting "exception" to the hyrophilic and hydrophobic hormones?
Eicosanoids.
They are hydrophobic so readily cross the plasma membrane to bind to intracellular receptors.....----> which then leads to a second messenger.
142
Briefly explain what is meant by Colony stimulating factors.
colony stimulating factors are stimulated by various different stem cells. Can be produced by macrophages and lymphocytes in response to an infection (ex: increased neutrophil production during infection).
*Response to various irregularities in the body triggers the production of certain kinds of cells (Negative/positive feedback and homeostasis.)
143
What are gonads and what do they produce?
Paired reproductive organs than produce gametes.
Testes produce sperm
Ovaries produce ova (eggs)
144
What sex chromosomes do biological males produce?
XY chromosomes
*also produce larger amounts of testosterone and lesser amounts of estrogen
145
What sex chromosomes do biological females produce?
XX chromosomes
*also produce more amounts of estrogen and progesterone and lesser amounts of testosterone.
146
Do humans reproduce through mitosis or meiosis?
Meiosis.
haploid gametes fuse to from a diploid zygote (containing genetic info from both parents) then split to form 4 genetically unique haploid daughter cells
147
Explain the first 1/3 of the action potential and subsequent steps of muscle contraction.
Action potential arrives at axon terminal
Voltage gated Ca2+ open, Ca2+ enters the axon terminal
Acetylcholine is released from the axon terminal and binds to receptors on the muscle cell membrane
Chemically gated Na+ channels open and Na+ enters the muscle cell
Action potential arrives at sarcolemma
148
Where does spermatogensis occur and what happens? (generally)
Occurs in the gonads (testes).
The process of developing immature sperm cells into mature spermatozoa through both mitotic (mitosis) and meiotic (meiosis I&II) divisions.
149
Once the action potential arrives at the sarcolemma explain the subsequent steps (2/3 of the muscle contraction AP)
Action potential travels along the sarcolemma
Action potential travel along t-tubule
Voltage gated Ca2+ channels in the sarcoplasmic reticulum open
Ca2+ enters the sarcoplasm
Ca2+ binds to troponin
150
Once Ca2+ binds to troponin explain the final steps (3/3) of muscle contraction AP.
Ca2+ binds to troponin
Troponin-trypomyosin exposes active sites on the G actin
Myosin heads bind with G-actin active sites (cross brides are formed)
ATP moves the myosin heads along the actin myofilament
Sarcomere shortens.
151
Pathway of spermatogenesis
1) Diploid (46 chromes) SPERMATOGONIUM: Mitosis. forms one copy to replace itself, one copy to form sperm.
2) Diploid PRIMARY SPERMATOCYTE: Meiosis I. makes 2 secondary spermatocytes.
3) 2 Haploid (23 chromes) SECONDARY SPERMATOCYTE: Meiosis II. make 4 spermatids.
4) 4 Haploid SPERMATIDS form 4 mature SPERMATOZOA through SPERMIOGENESIS (physical maturation)
152
GnRH
(Hormone control of spermatogenesis)
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
-Synthesized in the Hypothalamus
-When present it simulates the pituitary gland to make and secrete FSH and LH (2 types of gonadotropins)
153
FSH
(Hormone control of spermatogenesis)
-Follicle Stimulating Hormone
-Released by Anterior Pituitary gland (in response to GnRH)
-Targets: Sustentacular cells (in the presence of testosterone)
-Function: Stimulates spermatogenesis
154
Name the most important protein required for muscle movement and list some of it's function for muscle contraction/relaxation.
ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)
For contraction/movement 1 ATP is required per myosin head per cycle of cross bridge formation, movement (pivot), release and repositioning. (by far the most energy demand for muscle function)
For relaxation ATP is required for myosin release from actin
active transport of Ca2+ back into the sarcoplasmic reticulum
active transport of Na+/K+ across the sarcolemma.
155
LH
(Hormonal control of spermatogenesis)
-Luteinizing Hormone
-Released by Anterior Pituitary gland (in repsonse to GnRH)
-Target: Interstitial cells
-Function: Stimulates secretions of androgens (such as testosterone)
156
Inhibin
(Hormonal control of spermatogenesis)
-Release by nurse cells (sustentacular cells)
-Targets: Anterior pituitary gland & Hypothalamus
-Function: Inhibits the synthesis and secretion of FSH and reduces LH.
157
Explain Neuromuscular Junctions as it pertains to initiating an Action Potential.
One axon branch forms a synapse (Neuromuscular Junction) with one muscle fibre
the axon branch forms a cluster of axon terminals for a chemical synapse to occur. (excitatory cholinergic synapse specifically)
An action potential in the presynaptic membrane cause Ach (acetylcholine) to be released which depolarizes the presynaptic membrane which causes Na+ gated channels to open, letting Na+ rush in causing an AP.
158
Testosterone
(Hormonal control of spermatogenesis)
-Released by interstitial cells in the testes
-Target: lots. Testes, Hypothalamus
-Function: Male 2ndary sex characteristics, Stimulates spermatogenesis, Inhibits GnRH, Stimulates erythropoiesis, libido, bone building density and muscle mass
159
What hormones are part of spematogenesis?
GnRH
FSH
LH
Testosterone
Inhibin
160
Development of egg (oogenesis). Where does it occur and what happens? (simple)
Occurs in the ovaries (female gonads)
The production and development of mature ovum.
Begins in fetus. Babies are born with a lifetime amount of oocytes (precursor to mature egg)
161
Neural tissue and muscle tissue are similar in that they are both______ but different in that neural tissue does not_______
EXCITABLE, CONTRACT
162
How many primary oocytes is a person born with?
2 million.
400 000 remain at puberty
163
What is a follicle and whats it do?
Oocyte plus accessory cells = follicle
Once a month a follicle is stimulates to continue meiosis and become a mature egg.
* Meiosis II is only completed if fertilazation occurs.
164
Describe the differences in movement/activities for slow-oxidative muscle fibres and fast-glycolytic fibres.
Slow-oxidative muscle fibres (type 1 muscle fibres) are better suited for endurance and sustained contractions such as running or cycling.
Fast-glycolytic fibres (type 2 muscle fibres) are best suited for short bursts of high intensity movement like sprinting or weightlifting.
165
What is the ovarian cycle? (simple)
Growth and maturation of an oocyte in preparation for fertilization and reproduction.
1) Follicle phase
2) Ovulation
3) Luteal phase
166
Describe the differences in relative mitochondria, myoglobin and capillary supply for slow-oxidative muscle fibres and fast-glycolytic muscle fibres.
Slow-oxidative muscle fibres contain:
a high number of mitochondria (for aerobic respiration and energy production),
a high concentration of myoglobin (a protein that stores oxygen)
a high capillary supply to ensure high energy and nutrients supply.
Fast-glycolytic muscle fibres contain:
fewer mitochondria
lower concentration of myoglobin
lower capillary supply
All of which limits their ability for sustained aerobic metabolism and endurance activities.
167
(Ovarian cycle). Tell me about the 1st phase?
Follicle phase
- Oocyte surrounded by follicular cells (Primordial, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary (mature) follicle)
-Eventually forms a larger chamber called ANTRUM
*FSH hormone stimulates this phase
168
(Ovarian cycle). Tell me about the 2nd phase?
Ovulation phase
-Tertiary follicle ruptures (released secondary oocyte + its close support cells (corona radiata)).
*LH hormone is highest during this phase
169
(Ovarian cycle). Tell me about the 3rd phase?
Luteal phase
-A CORPUS LUTEUM is formed from an empty tertiary follicle.
-Cells begin secreting progesterone (+some estrogen)
-Corpus luteum eventually breaks down...--> forms CORPUS ALBICANS
170
Describe the differences in levels of stored glycogen and enzymes of anaerobic breakdown of glycogen for slow-oxidative muscle fibres and fast-glycolytic muscle fibres.
Slow-oxidative muscle fibres: High capacity for glycogen storage, low level of enzymes that break down glycogen through anaerobic metabolism (making them less prone to fatigue during prolonged exercise).
fast-glycolytic muscle fibres: Lower capacity of glycogen storage and high levels of enzyme break down of glycogen through anaerobic metabolism (making them generate energy quickly but more prone to fatigue.) `
171
What are the 3 phases of the Uterine cycle (menstrual cycle)?
1) Menstrual phase
2) Proliferative phase
3) Secretory phase
172
(Uterine cycle). Tell me about the 1st phase?
Menstrual phase
-Degeneration of functional layer of the endometrium.
-Blood cells and degenerated tissues are "sloughed off" (menstruation)
173
For slow-oxidative muscle fibres and fast-glycolytic muscle fibres which is best suited for aerobic or anaerobic metabolism?
Slow-oxidative muscle fibres are best suited for aerobic metabolism (they rely primarily on oxygen to produce energy for muscle contractions).
fast-glycolytic muscle fibres are best suited for anaerobic metabolism ( rely on non-oxygen sources to produce energy for muscle contractions).
174
(Uterine cycle). Tell me about the 2nd phase?
Proliferative phase
-Function layer is rebuild by cells of the basal layer.
175
(Uterine cycle). Tell me about the 3rd phase?
Secretory phase
-Functional layer is "functional again" with enlarged actively secreting glands
*Begins at time of ovulation, lasts as long as the corpus luteum lasts
176
The Follicle phase (1st phase) of the Ovarian cycle syncs up with the _______ phases of the Uterine (mentrual) cycle?
The follicle phase syncs up with the Menstrual (1st) phase. Days 1-7
and
Proliferative (2nd) phase). days 7-14
177
Briefly describe "Central fatigue"
Takes place in the nervous system. It's your brains way of forecasting "if you continue this activity you will be fatigued" to tell you to take a break.
**the easiest fatigue to overcome, encouragement can overcome this fatigue***
178
Main hormones of the ovarian cycle, uterine cycle and oogenesis?
GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)
FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)
LH (luteinizing hormone)
Estrogens (estradiol)
Progesterone
Inhibin
179
briefly describe synaptic/functional fatigue.
Occurs at the Neuromuscular Junction, motor neurons use up their Ach (acetylcholine)
***It's possible but not common***
180
Briefly describe Muscle fatigue
Lack of energy sources (no more glycogen)
damage to sarcolemma and Sarcoplasmic reticulum
Increase in inorganic phosphate (ATP> ADP+P)
Decrease in pH
181
Why does decreased pH effect muscle fatigue?
It increases the amplitude of Ca2+. H+ ions displace the Ca2+ from intracellular binding sites.
182
Which hormones are high during the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle?
Progesterone
Inhibin
Estrogen
183
The luteal phase of the ovarian cycle syncs up with the ____ phase of the Uterine cycle?
Secretory phase
Day 14-28
184
Oogenesis hormone GnRH
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone
-Synthesized in hypothalamus
-When present it simulates the pituitary gland to make and secrete FSH and LH (2 types of gonadotropins)
185
Oogenesis hormone FSH
Follicle Stimulating Hormone
-Released by Anterior Pituitary (in response to GnRH)
-Target: Follicles (developing eggs)
-Function: Stimulate follicular phase of the ovarian cycle
186
Oogenesis hormone LH
Luteinizing Hormone
-Released by Anterior Pituitary gland (in response to GnRH)
-Target: Tertiary follicle (almost mature egg)
-Function: Ovulation and development and maintenance of corpus luteum
187
Estrogen. wheres it produced, whats it promote, whats it inhibit and another function it does?
Produced: Ovaries (+ specialized follicle cells)
Promotes: Development of follicle, stimulates growth of endometrium & GnRH release.
Inhibits: LH secretion until day 10. Then STIMULATES it.
Other function: sex drive, 2ndary sex characteristics, stimulates bone and muscle
188
Progesterone (oogenesis). Wheres it produced, whats it promote, whats it inhibit, ?
Secreted by: Corpus luteum
Inhibits: GnRH (so FSH and LH too) (so no more follicles develop)
Development of endometrium
*if no fertilization corpus luteum shuts itself down.
189
Is hormone control in the ovarian cycle an example of positive or negative feedback?
Negative
190
(conception) Where does fertilization occur?
Uterine tube .
Cell membranes of oocyte and sperm fuse
191
What changes occur to oocyte when fertilization occurs?
Depolarization of oocyte membrane
Completion of meiosis II
Increase in metabolic rate
192
What is hCG?
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin
-Initially produced from cells in the embryo, then later the placenta.
-Released soon after implantation
-Maintains the corpus luteum (even though LH levels have decreased)
-Corpus luteum will continue to produce progesterone until the placenta takes over after a few months.
193
Types of contraception?
Permanent (surgical sterilization):
-Vasectomy or tubal ligation
Temporary:
-Barrier methods (condoms, abstinence, spermicide)
-Hormone methods (pills)
-Prevent ovulation (pills) -est & prog
-Prevent implantation (IUD, morning after pill)
194
List 7 anatomical and physiological changes that occur during pregnancy
1) increased size of uterus. placenta forms
2) Mammary glands grow (begin secretory activity)
3) Increased respiratory rate (and TV)
4) Increased blood volume (and cardiac output) *decreased BP though
5) Increased GFR + urine output
6) Increased BMR (basal metabolic rate)
7) Increased need for nutrients vitamins (folate. ect)
195
What are the 3 stages of labour?
1) Dilation stage (8+ hours up to 24)
-Dilation of cervix
2) Expulsion stage (less than 2 hours)
-Uterine contractions every 2-3 mins
3) Placenta stage (less than 1 hour after baby is born)
-placenta is detached, blood loss too
196
What does oxytocin do for labour and lactation?
Labour: Speeds it up by stimulating contractions via positive feedback
Lactation: stimulates contractions of breast tissues for milk "let-down reflex".
