Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Hierarchal levels of organization
A
- atoms
- molecules
- macromolecules
- organelles
- cells
- tissues
- organs and organ system
- organism
- population and species
- communities- multiple interacting species
- ecosystems- community and physical environment
- landscape- interacting ecosystem
- biomes- all tropical rainforest communities
- biosphere- the earth
2
Q
enzymes
A
not an organelle, but found in all eukaryotic forms of life
3
Q
stable sodium
A
has one more proton than it has electrons
4
Q
beta and alpha linkages
A
alpha linkages: starch and glycogen (potato and liver)
-easier to break down
beta linkages: cellulose and chitin (algae and tick)
5
Q
proteins from the golgi get transported to their correct location due to..
A
signal molecules in or on the membranes of transport vesicles
6
Q
secondary lysosome
A
lysosome that has fused with a phagosome
7
Q
Red blood cells vs solution
A
hyperosmotic- shrivel
isosomotic- normal
hypoosmotic- cells swell and eventually burst
8
Q
membrane proteins
A
- such as pores and channels
- have hydrophobic amino acids on much of their intramembrane surface
9
Q
disaccharides
A
lactose= glucose and galactose sucrose= glucose and fructose maltose= glucose and glucose
10
Q
Where are glycoproteins associated with the cell membrane found?
A
on the outer surface of the cell
11
Q
macromolecules
A
carbohydrates- starch, polysacchiride, glucose
nucleic acid- nucleotides (make DNA and chromosomes)
protein- amino acid
lipids- structurally diverse
12
Q
Elk in winter
A
have more unsaturated fatty acids (phospholipids) in the winter because they are liquid at room temperature
-so are polyunsaturated fats
13
Q
chaperone proteins
A
proteins that help other proteins achieve their correct folding
14
Q
What are formed in condensation reactions of their subunit components?
A
polysaccharides, polypeptides, polynucleotides, and neutral lipids
15
Q
Where are gap junctions found?
A
neural tissue
16
Q
polysaccharides
A
do not serve in the role of an intercellular signal molecule
-proteins, prostaglandins, sterols, and polypeptides do
17
Q
cholesterol
A
- steroid compound
- composed of four interconnected planar rings
18
Q
receptors for protein hormones
A
-embedded in the cell membrane of target cells
19
Q
microtubules
A
a cytoskeletal structure that is directly associated with cell movement via the cilia or flagellar motion eukaryotes
20
Q
tissues
A
epithelium- covers and lines organs and cavities (secretory)
connective- cartilage, bone, blood, tendons, fat (adipose)
muscle- smooth (internal organs and uterus), skeletal (muscle), cardiac
nervous- brain and spinal cord
21
Q
determination
A
- involves an interaction between nuclear genes and cytoplasmic determinants
- commitment of a cell to a specific pathway
- strictly under the control of cytoplasmic determinants
- result of the activation of stored maternal DNA
22
Q
stem cells
A
pluripotent- any cell type in an organism
multipotent
totipotent
23
Q
gradients of morphogens
A
help with pattern formation, which is cells determining their position in the embryo
24
Q
mesoderm
A
- responsible for the production of the notochord
- move inside the embryo during involution at an amphibians dorsal lip
- gives rise to blood vessels, gonads, heart, and skeleton
25
development of sperm
the cytoplasmic changes that bring about the character size and shape of gametes take place AFTER the completion of meiosis and cytokinesis
-in humans
26
zygote
a point where humans begin forming a multicellular diploid organism
27
embryonic stem cell therapies in humans
- nine years
- demonstrated stem cell therapies can restore some neural function in damaged spinal cords
- demonstrated these therapies can restore function in cardiac tissue
28
tinman and GATA
- transcription factors
- lead to formation of heart
- produced in response to signals from the endoderm
29
embryonic induction
- one tissue influences an adjacent tissue to develop a certain way
- it triggers a sequence of gene expression in target cells
- instructive or permissive
- the chemical identification of specific inducers has been difficult
30
fibroblast growth factors
a group of proteins containing a protein thought to be involved in the limb bud apical ectodermal ridge's inhibiting of differentiation in the progressive sone
31
BMP4
stimulates the production of ventral mesoderm in amphibian eggs
inhibited by:
-the translated proteins specified by the material in the grey crescent
-spemann's organizer factors
-noggin and chordin
32
redox reactions
- enzyme that gains an electron becomes reduced and has a higher energy level
- enzyme that loses an electron has been oxidized and now has a lower energy level
33
catalytic activity of an enzyme is affected by
- pH of the solution in which the reaction occurs
- temperature
- concentration of the substrates
- salt concentration in the solution
34
ligands
- competitive inhibitor- interferes with active site
| - allosteric inhibitor- changes shape of enzyme
35
cofactor
a manganese ion helps a digestive enzyme break down a nutrient by temporarily drawing electrons for the bonds being broken
36
ATP
compound used by all living cells to provide the energy to drive many chemical processes
- adenine (nitrogen base)
- sugar (ribose)
- triphophate (electrostatic repulsion between phosphates)
- 7.3 Kcal per mol
37
exergonic reaction
- activation energy is required
- the products have less energy than the reactants
- does not require the assistance of enzyme to occur
- has less energy after reaction
- can be spontaneous
38
enzymes
- bring substrates together so they can react more easily
- place stresss on specific bonds in substrate
- lower the amount of energy needed for a reaction (catalyst)
- donating or removing electron, not changing enzyme
- not permanently changed by the reaction
- orient molecules in energetically favorable fashion
39
anabolism
reactions occurring within the human body that use energy to build complex molecules from simpler molecules
- reactions that absorb energy
- endergonic
- precursor molecules making complex molecules using ATP and NADH
40
amylase
increases rate at which starch is broken down into smaller oligosaccharides by lowering the activation energy
41
substrate level phosphorylation locations
- reactions catalyzed by pyruvate kinase
- phosphoglycerate
- protein in Krebs cycle
42
water
- final reduced product in energy metabolism in most animals
| - only under conditions of high oxygen availability
43
net gain of ATP in cellular respiration with the absence of oxygen
2 for each glucose molecule
44
lactic acid
- in no O2, it makes pyruvate into lactate
- accumulated when fatigued
- if high muscle activity, hydrolysis leads to extra H+ (acidic)
- more common in animal metabolism than plant
45
diffusion
in the electron transport chain, the protons driven out across the inner mitochondrial membrane return through the F1 ATP synthase complex by it
46
Digestive system order
mouth, esophagus, stomach, duodenum, ileum, colon(large intestine), rectum, anus
47
small intestine
-duodenum (most digestion), jejenum, ileum (jj not in frogs)
-ileum where most absorption happens
(large capillary system but does not receive a lot of blood)
48
bile salts
-emulsify lipids and fat globules
-increases the efficiency of their digestion in he duodenum
-CCK stimulates bile being forced out of bladder
-free fatty acids and amino acids are moved to cells lining
-then go into lacteal and lymphatic system transporters
then transported back to heart
49
inactive powerful hydrolytic enzymes
synthesized by pancreas and gastric glans so their activity can be restricted to appropriate locations in the alimentary canal
50
Liver
- converts ammonia to urea
- synthesizes glucose from lactate using the gluconeogenisis pathway
- islets of langerhans release glucagon when blood glucose levels are low
- storage of glucose in form of glycogen
51
vitamins
water soluble: B1-12, C, folic acid, biotin (pregnancy), para-amino benzoic acids
lipid soluble- A, D, E, K
52
contraction of the diaphragm
causes tidal volume's inward movement during breathing
53
capillaries
arranged in networks and reach nearly every cell in body
- o2, nutrients, and cellular tissue is exchanged with surrounding tissue
- net flow of fluid into or out of one depends on the balance between blood pressure
- have lowest blood velocity
54
lymphatic system
- return excess fluid and proteins that are across capillary walls
- fat absorbed in gut distributed by lymphats (chylomicrons)
- body defense- production of lymphocytes and transport of phagocytes
- examined by immune system (PAMPS)
- toll like receptor- ventral to dorsal gradient
55
blood clotting steps
1. hageman factor-factor 12 (xii)
- activated by collagen and becomes factor 12a
2. active hangman activates thromboplastin (10a, 8, Ca+)
3. thromboplastin activates prothrombin(2) to thrombin(2a)
4. thrombin activates fibrinogen to fibrin(1)- closes cut with sticky network
56
things that occur in circulating mammalian erythrocytes
- hemoglobin
- chloride ions
- NOT ATP
- met-hemoglobin reductase
- carbonic anhydrase
57
Epinephrine and angiotensin II
signal molecules that cause the constriction of blood vessels
-effect on smooth muscle
58
red blood cells (erythrocytes)
- produced from bone marrow of adults
- deliver oxygen from lungs to body
- some are nucleated (birds, reptiles), some are not (humans)
- transports CO2 out of tissues (mainly as bicarbonate)
- most common blood cell in human body
59
toll-like receptors
assist macrophages in the recognition of non-self antigens by their ability to bind to:
- pathogen associated molecular patterns
- viruses
- bacteria
- fungi
60
vasopressin and oxcytocin
small peptide hormones produced and released by neurons originating in the hypothalamus
61
hormone
chemical messenger that carries a signal from one cell to another via blood
ex: sterols, proteins, amino acids, unsaturated fatty acids
- NOT polysaccharides
62
ecdysone and juvenile hormone
- help humans control insect pests
- cause insect larvae to not pupate
- reduces its population growth
63
pineal gland
builds up testosterone and produces melatonin
| -important in males that reproduce seasonally
64
negative feedback
Ex: hypothalamus serves as an integrated thermoceguatory center, which determines an organisms response to changes in its environment. Since, the hypothalamus normally serves to produce metabolic changes to reverse the direction of environmental temperature systems, it is negative feedback
65
polypeptide hormone
can use the same receptor and cause different effects in different cells by the protein kinases activated by its second messenger targeting different effector proteins
66
hormones that maintain or raise glucose levels
- glucagon
- glucocorticoid
- epinephrine
- cortisol
67
structures in kidney order
glomerulus, bowman's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule
68
distal tubule
- reduces water loss in body by aldosterone affecting it
- there is controlled Na and K transport
- still 20% sodium
- secret potassium ions into filtrate (fine tunes amount in)
69
witches milk
prolactin and oxytocin
70
testicular feminization
- males with external anatomy of an immature woman
| - associated with a lack of cytoplasmic receptors for testosterone
71
uric acid
- has the most nitrogens
| - associated with gout when deposited in joints
72
intensity of a stimulus encoded within nervous system
- the number of neurons firing action potentials in response to the stimulus
- the amplitude of the local potentials generated by stimulus
- the number of action potentials generated by a specific neuron
73
integration
- neuronal decision making
| - occurs on any neuron cell body
74
axonal hillic
1st voltage-gated ion channel
75
neurolial cell
most abundant cell type in CNS
76
information pathway within neuron
dendrite, cell body, axon
77
parasympathetic vs. sympathetic
- different types of neurotransmitters released onto target cells
- different location of the cell body on first motor neuron
78
basilar membrane
gives us ability to discriminate different frequencies of sound
79
brain
interprets the stimuli
80
primary vs secondary sense organs
primary: touch, pain, smell, temp, balance
secondary: taste, hearing, and sight
81
re-polarizing a neuron's cell membrane during an action potential
results from increased permeability to potassium ions
82
hair cells
- lateral line system in fish
- semicircular canals
- utricle
- saccule
- NOT olfaction in lizards
