Exam 2 Flashcards
1
Q
enzyme-substrate complex
A
- enzyme changes shape to fit substrate
- pepsin (stomach protein); the substrate, a polypetide, is in active site
- machaelis-menton model for E-S complex
2
Q
optimal temperatures and pH for enzymes
A
temp: 40 for human, 70 for enzyme from hot spring
pH: pepsin 2.5, trypsin 6.5
-reaction speed
3
Q
catabolism
A
process by which we break down molecules into smaller units
-in cytoplasm
4
Q
process of catabolism
A
- exergonic- release energy yielding nutrients: C, F, P
2. catabolism breaks it down into energy poor products: CO2, H2O, NH3
5
Q
energy content
A
- the driving force is the net change
- count the # of H on the molecule
6
Q
net change
A
G of reactants minus G or products
-G: release energy (exergonic)
+G: absorb energy (endergonic)
7
Q
delta H
A
change in enthalpy
-loss of heat energy is favored
8
Q
delta S
A
change in entropy
-increase in randomness is favored
9
Q
coupled reactions
A
- photosynthesis has a positive change in energy content as energy is put in
- Sum’s fusion reaction has a massive negative change in energy content as light energy is released
10
Q
oxidation reduction
A
oxidation- loss of electrons
reduction- gain of electrons
11
Q
releasing energy
A
- massive explosion (can’t capture energy)
- metabolic pathways
12
Q
metabolic pathways
A
- series of steps where each step releases a energy (ATP, NADPH, NADH, FADH2)
- series of enzymes changing the substrate to make product
13
Q
substrate level phosphorylation
A
-pyruvate kinase binds PEP and ADP making pyruvate and ATP
14
Q
NADH
A
- NAD+ is a coenzyme
- NAD+ and energy rich molecule go into enzyme and a chain of -e and +p is transferred making NADH (redox reaction)
- each in mitochondria membrane produce 2.5 ATP
15
Q
decarboxylation
A
removal of CO2 from a molecule
16
Q
pyruvate oxidation
A
pyruvate loses CO2 and CoA goes in while NAD+ goes into NADH making acetyl CoA
17
Q
glutamate
A
glutamete has an amino group removed making alpha-ketogluterate (amino acid taking amino off and using molecule for energy)
18
Q
cellular respiration
A
cells harvest energy by breaking bonds and shifting electrons across molecules
-aerobic and anaerobic respiration
-fermentation
(focus on carbohydrates, especially glucose)
19
Q
aerobic respiration
A
final electron acceptor is oxygen
-for anaerobic its not
20
Q
why glucose
A
- universal: everything does it
- glucose break down intermediates used for energy, reducing power, and as C skeletons to make other molecules
- central pathway of all biochemical processes
21
Q
glucose
A
-main product of photosynthesis
-start point for cellular respiration in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
C6H12O6
22
Q
glycolysis
A
- makes 2 ATP per glucose
- activated by glucose
1. C+glucose= fructose diphosphate
2. cleavage and rearrangement= PGAL + DHAP
3. energy harvesting reactions (substrate level phos.)
4. pyruvic acid
23
Q
activation of glucose
A
hexokinase and phosphofructokinase
-add phosphates
24
Q
harvesting energy from glucose
A
- PGAL makes 2 NADH (redox reaction)
- phosphoglycerate kinase and pyruvate kinase make 4 ATP each (substrate level phos.)
25
NAD+
removes e- from substrate making NADH, an e- carrier, that feeds e- transport chain in mitochondria
26
net gain for glycolysis
2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate
| releases 52 kcal/mol out of 686 in glucose (2.1%) and 28% of this is captures (plus NADH)
27
G-6-P crossroad
1. loses PO4 to make glucose and leave liver
2. pentose pathway- makes NADPH and fat
3. G-1-P- makes glycolygen for synthesis and storage
4. F-6-P- glycolysis and aerobic respiration (ATP, NADH, and FADH
28
pyruvate crossroad
1. ethanol
2. lactate dehydrogenase to make lactate
3. oxaloacetate
4. acetyl coA
29
acetaldehyde
use under low oxygen to recycle NADH to NAD+ (makes lactate and ethanol)
30
lactate
- in no O2, it makes pyruvate into lactate
- accumulated when fatigued
- if high muscle activity, hydrolysis leads to extra H+ (acidic)
31
Acetyl-6A crossroad
1. fatty acid synthesis in cytoplasm
2. triglyceride degradation that frees glycerol and fatty acids (cytoplasm)
3. citric acid for krebs cycle and aerobic respiration
- makes FADH2 and NADH in mitochondria
4. beta oxidation- makes FADH2 and NADH and acetyl-coA in mitochondria
32
oxidation of pyruvate
as pyruvate enters the mitochondrion, it is decarboxylated by pyruvate dehydrogenase
33
krebs cycle
oxidizing acetyl-CoA
1. priming C2+ C4= C6
2-9. energy extraction
-alpha ketogluterate makes succinyl-coA (makes atp)
-succinate goes through succinate dehydrogenase to make fumerate
-fumerate makes malate which goes through malate dehydrogenase to make oxaloacetate
34
krebs cycle net gain
for every 2 pyruvate:
- 3 NADH (makes 2.5 ATP)
- 1 FADH2 (makes 1.5 ATP)
- ATP
35
oxidative phosphorylation
1. electron transport (build proton gradient)
2. chemiosmosis (exploit proton gradient)
- inner mitochondrial membrane
- NADH feeds 3 complexes and FADH feeds 2
36
chemiosmosis
- hydrogen goes in to make ATP
| - takes 9 for every 1
37
rotemone
metabolic poison that blocks early in the ETC
| -kills fish
38
cyanide and CO
metabolic poison that blocks ET
39
DNP
metabolic poison that lets H+ through the membrane
40
oligomycin
metabolic poison that inhibits ATP synthase by blocking its proton channel (chemiosmosis)
41
subtracting NH2
glucose= alpha-ketogluterate
asp= oxaloacetate
ala=pyruvate
-intermediary metabolism
42
intermediary metabolism
connects amino acid and fatty acid (neutral lipids) catabolism to carbohydrates via deamination of amino acids and beta oxidation of saturated fatty acids
- in mitochondrion and cytoplasm (Catabolism)
- products are NH3, H2O, CO2
43
feedback inhibition
when all have high levels of ATP and NADH, Krebs cycle and fatty acid break down are inhibited
- glycolysis is also inhibited by ATP inhibiting pfk
- allosteric control
44
feedback inhibitors
- Atp inhibits hexokinase (hexokinase b4 F-6-P)
- AMP and ADP activate pfk
- citrate and atp (krebs cycle) inhibits pfk
- NADH and acetyl coA inhibits pyruvate dehydrogenase
- acetyl-coA activates pyruvate carboxylase
45
allosteric control of fatty acids
lots of atp shuts down beta-oxidation
| -cant even get into mitochondria
46
breakdown
amino acids- deamination
sugars- glycolysis
fatty acids- beta oxidation
47
digestion
1. hydrolysis of complex molecules to their component building blocks
2. conversion of building blocks to acetyl coA
48
macromolecule intake
protein 15%
fats 20%
carbs 65%
49
L isomer
amino acids
- protein can be both but we use L
- essential and non essential
50
lipids
- linoleic fatty acid (essential from fish)
| - omega-3 and omega-7 unsaturated fatty acids (where double bond is)
51
Na, K, Cl
important ions in membrane potentials and neural signal propagation
52
Ca
important in secretion neurotransmitters and regulatory functioning (don't absorb in water)
53
Mg
important cofactor in several enzymes
54
carbohydrates
polysaccharides with alpha linakges
55
teeth
increase surface area accessible to digestive enzymes
- molars
- premolars
- canines
- incisors
56
milk teeth vs. permanent teeth
milk teeth fall out and are replaced by permanent
| -some teeth grow continuously in some species
57
saliva
moisten food and start polysaccharide digestion using amylase
58
salivary glands
cells of salivary gland increase surface area and actively transport sodium chloride
-cells produce salivary anhydrase and bicarbonate that begins the break down of carbs
59
cardinal notch
where stomach and esophagus join
- no valve but thickening
- pyloric sphincter- opens periodically, end of stomach
60
regurgitation
- thickening at base of esophagus
- contract abdominal muscles
- flex neck so it goes out the mouth
61
digestive system
food processing and distribution with a unidirectional flow
| -peristaltic movement in esophagus (contraction and relaxation)
62
stomach
release of acid and zymogens and increased motility stimulated by gastrin and smooth muscle contraction (auto stimulation)
end digestion: GIP and secretin (entergasterones that keep material in stomach)
63
enterogasterones
-blocks emptying of stomach (until processed)
-gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) and secretin
(GIP and CCK also have role in ending feeding)
64
hormone gastrin
- polypeptide
- pyloric portion of stomach
- entry of food into stomach
- stimulates secretion of HCL and pepsinogen by stomach
65
cholecytokinin
- polypeptide
- fatty chyme in duodenum
- stimulates gall bladder contraction and secretion of digestive enzymes by pancreas
66
GIP
- polypeptide
- fatty chyme in duodenum
- inhibits stomach emptying
- stimulates insulin secretion (blood sugar level)
67
secretin
-polypeptide
-acidic chyme in duodenum
-stimulates secretion of bicarbonate by pancreas
(first hormone discovered)
68
start of digestion for small intestine
- arrival of chyme from stomach
- secretin releases basic juices and CCK, zymogen releases bile delivery
- duodenal enzyme entrokinase activates pancreatic zymogens
69
end digestion for small intestine
-somatostatin
| VIP increases blood supply to gut
70
lacteal
extra return portion of circulatory system
| -important role in absorbing fatty material
71
pancreas
```
-mixed function gland: exocrine for digestion and endocrine for glucose regulation
release:
ions/juices- secretin
zymogens- CCK
stopping secretins- enkephein
```
72
exocrine function of pancreas
-acinar cells secrete zymogens and pancreatic juices due to CCK and secretin
73
endocrine function of pancreas
- islet of langerhorns
- alpha cells (glucagon), beta cells (insulin)
- delta cells (somatostatin) stops alpha and beta cells
74
Bile
-CCK stimulates bile being forced out of bladder
-bile salts emulsify fat globules
-free fatty acids and amino acids are moved to cells lining
-then go into lacteal and lymphatic system transporters
then transported back to heart
75
zymogen activation
- chief cells release zymogen, pepsinogen self activated
| - partial cells of gastric glands, secrete acid
76
water used in digestion
mouth to small intestine- 9 liters
large intestine- 1 liter (first thing that happens)
-you get 1.5 liters by drinking and rest is from blood
77
large intestine
- most nutrients gone by now
| - ileum is where water is used
78
microorganisms
- 10^13 times 30 microorganisms in gut
- bacteria make up most of colon and 60% of the feces
- 300-100 diff species
79
salivary reflex
stimulation of chemoreceptors in oral and nasal cavity causes release
80
gastrocolonic reflex
food reaching stomach triggers defamation (nervous control within gut)
81
leptin
hormone; ob gene encodes the receptor for leptin
| -production by adipose tissue during feeding leads to satiation
82
hormonal control of feeding
- GIP/CCK induced by eating stops eating behavior
- ghrelin stimulates eating
- high levels of leptin and insulin reduce appetite (low increases)
- low levels of leptin can inhibit reproduction and growth
83
brown adipose tissue
-cold young mammals
-rich supply of mitochondrion
-burn fat for heat without atp
-thermogenin uncouples protein gradient and chemiosmosis
(similar to DNPs affect on inner mitochondrial membrane)
84
circulation functions
movement of materials and transmission of force (liquids can't be depressed)
85
materials moved by circulation
- nutrients and gases
- waste (nitrogen)
- hormones (hydrophobic so have carrier)
86
transmission of force
- pressure for glomerular filtration in kidney
- pressure for capillary exchange
- lower organisms with hydrostatic skeletons use pressure differentiation for locomotion
87
open circulatory system
body cavity is a hemocoel
- hemocytes
- water
- inorganic ions
- organic substances- nutrients and hormones
88
closed circulatory systems
humans and earthworm
- blood never leaves systems of blood vessels
- capillaries, arteries, veins
89
components of closed system
propulsive organ- heart (single or double)
arterial system- takes blood from heart
capillaries- exchange site
venous system- takes blood toward heart
lymphatic system- excess extracellular fluid returned to heart
90
arteries
- conduit for blood away from heart
- pressure resevoir
- dampen oscillation of pressure due to heart beat (elasticity of walls)
- controls distribution of oxygenated blood (precapillary sphincters)
91
veins
return conduit to heart
- storage reservoirs for blood (sinuses)
- some peristaltic contraction in venues
- redistibrute blood with postural changes
- blood losses absorbed by venous system
92
PAMPS
path associated molecular patterns
| -read changes in immune system
93
portal veins
humans: hepatic and hypothelmohypophysenal
frogs: hepatic, hypothelmohypophysenal, and renal portal
94
types of arteries
elastic: conducting, elastic
muscular: distributing: smooth muscle flow
- regulate blood flow
95
capillaries
arranged in networks and reach nearly every cell in body
| -o2, nutrients, and cellular tissue is exchanged with surrounding tissue
96
venules
small veins; one way valves that move blood back
97
largest veins
superior and inferior vena cava
98
blood composition
- 5-6 liters of blood in avg person
- circulatory system is 60000 miles
- cellular 45% (erythrocytes, leukocytes, macrophages, and megathrombocytes)
- noncellular 55% (water, protein, salts, other)
99
white blood cells (leukocytes)
- lymphocytes, granulocytes, and macrophages (monocytes)
- find bc of toll like receptors (pamp binded by toll like receptors)
- defend body against infectious disease and foreign entities
100
lymphocytes
- natural killer
- T cells
- B cells- form plasma cells which make antibodies (antibodies make memory cells)
101
lymphatic system
flow pattern of lymphatics reflects spread pattern of metastatic cancers
102
hemoglobin
-RBCs
- 4 polypeptides, beta chain, alpha chain, hemegroups(O2 and Fe)
embryonic- high affinity for oxygen
fetal- not as high affinity for oxygen
adult- A and D, over affinity for oxygen
103
amino acid cystine
holds NO, used as vasodialator
104
carbonic anhydrase
- in erythrocytes
- mimic carbonic acid
- catalyzes reaction of CO2 and water into bicarbonate and H
105
bicarbonate
-maintains acid-base balance
| H+ has role in Bohr shift
106
MET-hemoglobin reductase
- enzyme in erythrocytes
| - catalyzes reduction of met-hemoglobin to hemoglobin via oxidation of NADH
107
hemoglobin loading
the first oxygen loaded onto hemoglobin is hard but it changes its shape making it progressively easier as more are added (sigmoid loading curve)
- temp reduces affinity for oxygen
- makes hemoglobin an effective transporter
108
Bohr Shift
H+ binding to hemoglobin reduces its affinity for oxygen (shifts loading curve to the right)
- helps unload
- makes hemoglobin an effective transporter
109
myoglobin and neuroglobin
reserve holders of oxygen in critical tissues (cardiac and skeletal muscle)
-neuroglobin is nervous tissue and can also be oxygen consumer
110
atrial natriuretic peptide
released from right atrium in response to high venous pressure
-causes increased urine production
111
vasopressin (ADH)
released by posterior pituitary (told by hypothalamus) in response to high K and NA concentration
- high K and NA changes membranes potential and fluids osmolality
- decreases urine production via increased permeability to water in collecting duct (more aquaporin in cell membranes)
- raises blood pressure in times of severe blood loss
112
increased concentration of Na in JGA
- the JGA releases renin which produces angiotensin 1 from angiotensinogen (liver secreted blood protein)
- Angiotensin converting enzyme converts angiotensin 1 to angiotensin 2
- angiotensin 2 causes increase in vasoconstriction and aldosterone (adrenal cortex)
- aldosterone decreases urine production via increased sodium retention in distal tubule
113
epinephrine
- causes vasodialation (increase in blood flow) in periphery via beta receptors in arterioles
- increases heart beat
- mobilizes fat (oxygen and energy giving compounds)
114
nor-epinephrine
- causes vasoconstriction via alpha receptors in arterioles
| - slows heart rate but increases stroke volume
115
erythropoietin
from kidney, influences the rate of erythrocyte production
116
adrenal gland
- anterior end of kidney
- epinephrin and nor-epinephrin
- fight or flight is controlled by the medulla
117
pressor center in pons
- cardiac accelerating center in medulla
- sympathetic system, epinephrin as neurotransmitter
- causes systemic vasoconstriction and cardiac vasodilation
- increase rate and strength of heartbeat
118
depressor center in pons
- cardiac inhibitory center in medulla
- parasympathetic system, acetylcholine as neurotransmitter
- causes systemic vasodilation and cardiac vasoconstriction
- slows rate and strength of heart beat
119
aortic and carotid bodies influence on blood
- sinuses of major arteries
- monitor oxygen, CO2, and ph level in blood (chemosensors)
- report to medulla's respiratory and cardiac centers
120
hypothalamus
monitors CO2, blood ph, K ions, and temp
- sends appropriate signals to medulla's cardiac and respiratory centers
- as CO2 and H levels climb, ventilation increases (stronger reaction to CO2 bc it enters the cerebral spinal fluid easier, H charge prevents from leaving blood)
121
sinoatrial (SA) node
- on right atrium
- pace maker
- sight of sympathetic and parasympathetic enervation
- diff by NTS
122
oxygen level
- in deep tissue (non-pulmonary), the pre capillary arteriole sphincters dilate in response to low oxygen, sending blood to regions of high metabolic activity
- in lungs, arteriole sphincter contract in response to low oxygen, diverting blood to ares of lungs richer in oxygen
123
nitrogen oxide
stimulates vasodialation
| -helps with erectile dysfunction, GMP binds with smooth muscle
124
viagra
prevents breaking cyclic GMP to GMP, making smooth muscle relax
-phosphodiestrate
125
medulla respirator center
is directly affected by levels of H and CO2
| -monitoring of these levels with in cerebrospinal fluid is primary control
126
inspiratory center
-in medulla and pneumistic center in pons
-signals sternocleido muscles, external intercostals, and diaphragm to contract
(all muscles are neurogenic skeletal muscles, have to be told to contract)
127
pulmonary (alveolar) stretch receptors
send signals to inhibit inspiratory center, resulting in exhalation
128
expiratory center
- in medulla and apnea center (smooths the initiation of exhalation) in pons
- signals internal intercostals to contract causing forcible exhalation
129
pons
-smooth breathing notion
130
pneumotaxic center
- controls both the rate and the pattern of breathing
| - regulates the amount of air that can be taken into the body in each breath
131
aortic and carotid bodies influence of ventilation
- monitor pO2, ph, and pCO2and signal the respiratory center via vagus and glossopharyngeal nerves (secondary conrol)
- if drop in oxygen or ph (higher H) or up in CO2, the respiratory center increases ventilation
- response to ph and CO2 is greater than changes in oxygen (oxygen can't trigger ventilation)
132
deep breathing affect on ph
- elevates bloods ph (lower H)
| - this has the effect of reducing the ventilation rate by inhibiting the medullary respiratory center
133
immune system
surveillance for the elimination of antigens that are indicative of infection or other alterations of normal body cells
134
antigen
a foreign substance that enters the body
- antibody generating substances
- epitopes (determinants) on surface (protein and bacteria) that are the direct targets of immune system
135
generalized immunity
same response regardless of invader (innate)
- skin
- blood clotting
- inflammation
- natural killer cells
136
physical and chemical barriers
physical- skin is barrier to microbes, gut lining has tight junctions (nothing passes through body without going through cells)
chemical- sebum and defensins are antimicrobials secreted onto skin; ph of stomach is sometimes sided
137
inflammation
- injured cells and sentinel cells produce chemical alarm signals (histamine, IL-8, and TNF-a)
- collagen contact with platelets liberates histamine and serotonin
- histamine causes blood vessels to dilate, increased blood flow, and increased permeability of capillaries (swell)
- bradykinin stimulates nerve endings (pain)
138
temperature response
- chemotactic factors attract phygocytic neutrophils and macrophages (pyrogens)
- inhibits microbial (viral) growth
- enzymes work better
- hemoglobin doesn't work as well
139
natural killler cells
- cells detect that the body reduces MHC 1 expression when infected by viruses
- then release perforin and granzymes which tells the cell to kill itself
140
MHC class 1 proteins
on all nucleated cells, the markers of self, show immune system what proteins are currently being made inside cell
-continuous reporting
141
MHC class 2 proteins
on immune system associated cells, regulate whether you will and how strongly you react to a foreign substance
-poison ivy example
142
phagocytes
destroy bacteria and find the place they need to go by concentration gradient
143
antigen specific receptors
- on T and B cells
- millions of different types, but each T an B only have one
- receptors are generated before the exposure to antigens by a complex series of DNA arrangements
- autoimmune disease if they don't work well
144
specific immunity
unique response to each invader
primary- slow to build, produces memory cells (IgM+IgG)
secondary response- fast and massive, based of memory cells (IgG- what memory cells make)
145
Th cells
help in differentiation of B or T cells (IL-2)
146
specific immunity process
1. antigen and macrophage provoke immune response (lymph node)
2. Antigen uses MHC 1/2+Ag and IL-1
3. mature T cells or B cells respond
147
B cell response
- become plasma cells that use antibodies (M,G,A,E) to attack
- antigen peptides engulfed by macrophages, get process and presented on MHC 2
- antibodies bind to pathogens marking them for destruction by phagocytic cells (use epitopes)
- humoral immunity
148
T cell reponse
-T cells (CTLs) directly attack invader
-cell-mediated immunity
(HIV attacks Th)
149
granulocytes
- defense
- neutrophils- most common
- eosinophils- defend against parasites (phagocytic)
150
basophils
- releases histamine (allergies
| - leaves system and becomes mass cells
151
cytoplasmic granules
- in lymphocytes, granulocytes, and basophils
| - contents differ, toxic to kill pathogens
152
macrophages
- monocytes in circulation
| - bind with toll like receptors and become APC
153
megakaryocytes
- formed in bone marrow
- produce sacs (platelets) that on lysis release histamine
- lysis happens when it comes in contact with collagen connective tissue
154
noncellular portion of blood
- plasma, 55%
- 92% is water
- 7% is protein (albumin, globulin B+Y, and fibrinogen for clots)
- .85% ions/salts (Na,Cl,HCO,K)
- other- glucose, amino acids, vitamins, and micro minerals
- waste- ammonia, urea, uric acid (N waste)
155
serum
- plasma minus fibrinogen
| - doesnt clot
156
blood clotting
enzymatic amplication cascade
- 11 components (protein) that are present but inactive in blood
- made by liver and secreted into blood
157
hemophilla
defect in factor 8 (common), 9, or 11
158
peperin
prevents blood from clotting, ties up Ca2
159
thermoregulation
- water is a heat holder
| - originally vasoconstriction (capillaries sphincters are closed) but add heat and they relax and blood flow increases
160
fish hearts
- have 2 chambers
| - sinus vinosus initiates heart beat
161
frog heart
- 3 chambers
- sinus vinosus is the cardiac pacemaker
- not complet mixing- first blood rushing is oxygenated and last is low on O2
- blood with low O2 goes to third axon?? to go to lungs
162
reptile heart
- 4 chamber
| - separation in ventricle is not complete
163
mammals and bird heart
- 4 chamber
- complete separation in ventricle, two different circuits
- most efficient
164
cardiac cycle
- right atrium
- tricuspid valve
- right ventricle
- pulmonary valve
- lungs
- left atrium
- ventrical valve (bicuspid)
- left ventrical
- aoritic valve
165
diastolic pressure
- lowest pressure
| - pressure in arteries when ventricle is relaxed
166
systolic pressure
- ventricular contraction
| - highest pressure
167
SA node contraction
-initiates wave of depolarization
-spreads across atria
-pauses at AV node
-atria contract
-massive depolarization
-ventricles contract
(nervous system can increase or decrease rate with epinephrin and acetyl choline, but heart will beat w no influence of brain)
168
systemic circulation
- provides O2 to host of body
| - left ventricle to capillary bed to right atrium
169
pulmonary circuits
right ventricle to lungs and O2 to left atrium
170
aveoli
surrounded by capillary bed
171
pressure in heart
-highest on arteriole side
-drops at capillary bed
?
172
hemo dynamics
hydrostatic and osmotic pressure in capillary exchange, driving force in exchange is drop in hydrostatic pressure across capillary bed, efflux into tissues on arteriolar and influx from tissues on venue sides
173
lymphatic veins
- collect excess extracellular fluid to heart
- pair of them= lymph node
- location to amount specific immune system response
174
deamination
removal of NH2 from a molecule
175
epiglottis
flexible region that allows when food is chewed you can breath
-trachea closed so you can't choke
176
role of oxygen in metabolism
water production from combining oxygen, a pair of e-, and a pair of H
-cytochrome oxidase complex (ETC)
177
breathing and gas exchange in mammals
gradients of CO2 and O2 are facilitated by carbonic anhydrase in RBCs, gradient s are reversed in pulmonary vs deep tissues
178
capillary exchange
- atrial filtration into tissues (out of system)
- venus uptake from tissues (into system)
- driving force is pressure
179
hemocytoplast
- what all blood rises from
| - hemosomatic stem cell
180
pumpin action of heart
- provides driving force for capillary exchange
- continues if the heart is removed from the body
- requires the hydrolysis of ATP to form ADP
- initiated by the sinus venous in frogs
