Final Exam 4 Flashcards
Refers to a conceptual system made up of thoughts and attitudes about oneself
The self
When does the self emerge?
early years of life and continues through adulthood
can recognize that their own actions are different from that of others.
3-8 month olds
respond to separation from caregivers
8 months old
By what age is the rogue test show that the child knows it is there cheek and not on the mirror?
18 months
Children exhibit embarrassment and shame.
Self-assertive behavior and use of language also facilitate self-awareness.
age 2
Children understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities and abilities, and psychological traits.
Inflated sense of self and abilities.
age 3-4
comparing their own characteristics, behaviors, and possessions to others.
social comparisons
Become vulnerable to low self-esteem.
Ability to think and reason about higher order concepts facilitates these comparisons.
by elementary school age
beliefs about the uniqueness of ones own thoughts and feelings.
“you couldn’t possibly understand what I’m going through”
personal fable
The belief that everybody is focused on their own personal appearance and behavior (and possible mistakes, errors, and missteps).
imaginary audience
Piaget: Formal Operational Thinking—higher order reasoning about hypothetical situations, multiple view points, and abstract concepts.
by adolescence
Identity vs. Role Confusion
Erikson’s theory of identity formation
Erikson’s theory of identity formation
the success with which people (especially adolescents) navigate their identity by looking at the extent of exploration and commitment.
Ends with the development of a coherent identity or confusion and lack of understanding of what or who they should be.
Erikson’s theory of identity formation
“I have thought about and deeply explored my options, and I know what I want to do with my life”
identitiy achievement… in james marcia’s identity formation status
“I’m actively exploring my options and thinking about what I want to do, but I don’t know”
moratorium
“I don’t know and don’t care what I plan to do with my life, and I’m not exploring any options”
identity diffusion
“I have made a choice about who I want to be based on the values of others, without thinking through my options”.
foreclosure
Refers to individual’s sense of belonging to an ethnic group
Includes the degree to which children associate their thinking, perceptions, feelings, and behavior with membership in that ethnic group
ethnic identity
Ethnic identity components:
knowledge, self-identification, constancy, role behaviors, feelings and preferences
three phases of development that many such youth go through.
ethnic-identity diffusion/foreclosure
ethnic-identity search/moratorium
ethnic-identity achievement
two different approaches to explain gender differences.
Evolutionary approaches
Neuroscience approaches
maintain that sex differences in behavior emerge because they offer reproductive advantages.
evolutionary approach
The greater male propensity for impulsivity and physical aggression may provide them with reproductive advantages and advantages in hunting.
evolutionary
Females’ tendency to build strong alliances with other females could insure assistance with childcare, benefiting their offspring.
evolutionary
Focus on testing how hormones and brain functioning are related to variations in gender development
Much attention paid to possible effects of androgens, including testosterone
Neuroscience Approaches
hormones and brain functioning
Neuroscience Approaches
occur when certain sex-linked hormones affect brain differentiation and organization during prenatal development or at puberty.
organizational influences
occur when fluctuations in sex-linked hormone levels influence the activation of certain brain and behavioral responses.
activational influences
The corpus callosum, the nerve bundle connecting the hemispheres, tends to be large and more dense in ______
women
When engaged in cognitive tasks, _____ brains tend to show more unilateral activation whereas ______ brains show more bilateral activation.
male, female
Children with discrepant gender identity are often impervious to parental attempts to socialize them differently.
Prefer cross-gender-typed play activities and clothing
Dislike gender-typed play activities
biological perspecitve
Most children’s gender identification is consistent with their observable genitalia and gender socialization.
biological perspective
Gender-typed interests emerge after gender constancy is achieved.
Motivation to enact gender-typed behavior begins soon after children can label other people’s and their own gender during toddlerhood.
Children’s understanding of gender develops through the construction of gender schemas.
gender schema theory
children classify new objects and activities as “for boys” or “for girls.” They tend to investigate objects and activities that are relevant to their sex and ignore those that are associated with the other sex.
gender schema theory
direct teaching
tuition
experiencing the reactions one’s behavior evokes in others
enactive experience
watching others
observation
Social Cognitive Theory 3 ways of learning gender:
enactive experience, observation, tuition
Depicted a triadic model of reciprocal causation
Personal factors
Environmental factors
Behavior patterns
social cognitive theory
Parents often convey messages about gender through gender-essentialist statements.
Parents were more likely to offer explanations to boys about what they were observing than they were to girls.
Fathers used more instructional talk with sons than with their daughters.
Parents and other adults are more likely to comment on girls’ physical appearance and attire than on boys’.
socialization between parents
a person’s preference in regard to males or females as objects of erotic feelings.
sexual identity
Most current theorists believe that feelings of sexual attraction to others are based primarily on biological factors, although the environment may also be a contributing factor.
Biology and environment
Puberty is the most likely time for youth to begin experiencing feelings of sexual attraction to others.
Timing
the process through which social partners focus on the same external object, underlies the human capacity to teach and to learn from teaching.
joint attention
Younger preschool children will often play next to each other without much communication or interaction between them.
parallel play
The Preoperational Stage
2-7
Children assume that others see the world as they do.
Others can see what they see, know what they know, etc.
egocentric reasoning
When asked to choose the picture that shows what the doll sitting in the seat across the table would see, how do most preoperational children reply?
Piaget’s Three-mountains Task
How well can children understand what other people are thinking or feeling?
Perspective Taking:
level 1
What objects another person can see
level 2
How another person sees those objects.
How and when does a person “know” something?
Can a person “believe” something that is untrue?
social concepts
Understanding how others’ perspectives can differ from one’s own.
perspective taking
False belief tasks:
What will Maxi think is in the box? a pencil or m and ms?
What is the conclusion with false belief tasks?
its culturally the same across age groups
Why test ToM?
Assessments during preschool predict later: Social skills Peer Acceptance/Close Friendships Prosocial Orientation School Readiness Advanced Deception
severe deficits in social skills, language and atypical motor behaviors.
autism
What makes kids’ Theory of Mind better?
Talking about others’ perspectives
Having Older Siblings
Providing Explanations of Mental Phenomena
The first relationship between parents/caregivers and the child.
Strong Emotional bonds that endures across space and time.
Serves as a prototype for future relationships.
Attachement relationships
Observed institutionalized children during the mid 20th century which led to understanding of importance of early parent-child interactions in development.
John bowlby
the role of comfort in attachment
Harlow experiement
2 main findings in harlow study:
Infants deprived of maternal attachments were socially inept.
Parental attachment was not tied only to parents being a food source. There are deeper and more meaningful connections that are critical for early socialization.
A mental representation of self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general which guides interactions with caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages.
internal working model
(i.e., attachment figure’s presence) provides young child sense of security that makes environmental exploration possible
secure base
Theorized children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
attachment theory
Preattachment phase
(birth to 6 weeks)
The infant produces innate signals that bring others to his or her side and is comforted by the interaction that follows
Attachment-in-the-making
(6 weeks to 6 months)
The phase in which infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people
Clear-cut attachment
6 months- 2 years
Characterized by the infant’s actively seeking contact with their regular caregivers and typically showing separation protest or distress when the caregiver departs
reciprocal relationships
2 years and on
Involves children taking an active role in developing working partnerships with their caregivers
attachment as a launching pad
(2 to 6 years)
young children seek caregivers reassurance as they expand their social networks. Interactive games and conversations are prominent. Parents expected to comfort and entertain.
mutual attachment
(6 to 12 years)
Children seek to make parents proud. Accomplishments are valued by adults and children together.
new attachment figures
(12 to 18 years)
teenagers explore, make new friends, and apply internal working models of attachment to these relationships.
attachment revised
(18 years on )
Develop attachments with romantic partners and own children. Internal working model continues.
Child is exposed to seven “episodes”, including two separations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger when alone and when the caregiver is in the room.
the strange situation
what three factors did mary ainsworth observe?
exploration, reaction to caregivers departure, and reaction to caregivers return
Secure attachment %?
2/3 of children or 60%
Insecure/avoidant attachment %?
15% of children
Seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver.
insecure/aboidant
Insecure/Resistant (Ambivalent) %
15%
Often clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment.
ambivalent
When the caregiver returns, they are not easily comforted and both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them.
ambivealent
Disorganized %?
5-10%
Infants in this category seem to have no consistent way of coping with the stress of the Strange Situation.
disorganized
Their behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and they often appear dazed or disoriented.
disorganized
Prefers caregiver to stranger
secure attachment
Is upset when the caregiver leaves but is happy to see the caregiver return, recovering quickly from any distress.
secure attachment
Predictors of secure attachment
Parental sensitivity and responsiveness:
Parents respond to infants needs in a way that is consistent and not overwhelming/overbearing.
Sends the message that the world is a safe place and my caregiver will be there to meet my needs.
High synchrony
Child has an “easy” temperament
Low parental stress
Parents have a secure internal working model of their own attachment with their parents.
Maternal depression
Child has a difficult temperament.
Child abuse.
ambivalent
Severe maltreatment and abuse
Parental stress
Parental mental illness (specifically, paranoia)
Maternal alcoholism
disorganized
Neglect Parental stress. Parental domination and intrusiveness. Paternal alcoholism Child has a “slow to warm up” temperament.
avoidant
Children who were adopted out of the institutions at a young age (< ~22 months) caught up to typically developing children, suggests what?
critical period
Internal model: comes from attachement to your parents and teaches us what?
What to expect in your relationships with others How people relate to each other How trustworthy others are How much one can control others’ actions How enjoyable relationships are
Child:Self-reliant, self confident, explore the world with excitement and pleasure
authoritative
child:Unhappy, withdrawn, inhibited, distrustful
authoritarian
child:Less independent, less self-control, immature
permissive
child:Generally perform poorly in all domains
uninvolveds
parent: high demand and low support
authoritarian
parent: low demand and high support
permissive
parent: low demand and low support
uninvolved
parent: high demand and high support
authoritative
a path of behavior extending through time
developmental trajectory
Gene & environment: genetic potential and environmental stimulant
Parents initiate pathways through the activities and experiences they provide for child
Some planned, often unplanned
Child’s temperament and behavior play a role
developmental trajectory
3 ways to provide encouragement:
- Giving child independence
- Identifying positive
Contributions - Teach child to ask
for what they need
Research shows you should acknowledge ________ and make no judgements
effort
Why is physical touch so important?
Brings feelings of contentment and relaxation
Release of oxytocin and other “cuddle chemicals”
Valuing your child as a special and unique person
Loving your child just because they exist – no strings attached, no standards to meet
are examples of what?
building a pyschological envirnoment
2 ways parents form close relationships with children:
Providing sensitive, responsive care
Being an interactive social partner
child has a hard time trusting own feelings
dismiss
child has a hard time trusting own feelings
disapprove
have trouble coping with feelings, social problems later
over-accept
What do morals require?
Requires an understanding of intentionality and goals
Beliefs about right and wrong and the goodness or badness of human character (or behavior).
Morals
From rigid acceptance of the dictates and rules of authorities To an appreciation that moral rules are a modifiable product of social interaction
Piagets theory of moral judgment
Piagets stages of moral judgement
morality of constraint -> transition period -> autonomous morality
Rules of morality of constraint:
Children younger than 7.
Rules are rules and they are unchangeable.
Authority figures are always justified in punishing people for breaking rules.
What determines whether an action is good or bad is the consequence of the action, not the motive behind it
The transitional period ages:
7/8-10
Children learn that rules can be constructed by the group through increased peer interaction.
Learn how rules are made and increasing ability to understand others perspectives.
Value fairness and equality.
transitional period
autonomous morality age:
11-12 and on
Moral relativism emerges.
Rules can be changed if a group agrees to do so
Fairness and equality —punishment should fit the crime.
Individuals’ motives are considered when evaluating people’s actions.
autonomous morality
Rules are a product of a social agreement and this agreement can be changed
autonomous morality
Stages in kohlbergs theory?
- preconventional
- conventional
- postconventional
Moral reasoning is involved with ideals, focusing on moral principles.
postconventional
Moral reasoning is centered on social relationships.
conventional
Moral reasoning focused on getting rewards and avoiding punishment.
preconventional
Levels of cognitive development, especially individuals‘ skills in perspective taking, determined progress through the stages
perspective taking
What is seen as right is obedience to authorities
Preconventional: Punishment and Obedience
Morality is defined in terms of one’s own best interest or a tit-for-tat exchange of benefits
Preconventional: Instrumental and Exchange
Good behavior is doing what is expected by people close to the individual or by fulfilling the expectations of a social role
Conventional: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations, Relationships, and Interpersonal Conformity
Kohlbergs six stages of moral judgement:
- Preconventional: punishment and obedience
- Preconventional: instrumental and exchange
- conventional: mutual interpersonal expectations
- Conventional: social system and conscience
- Social contract or individual rights
- universal ethical principles
Right behavior is commitment to self-chosen ethical principles that reflect universal principles of justice.
When laws violate these principles, the individual should act in accordance with these universal principles rather than the law.
Many adults do not ever reach this stage of reasoning.
Postconventional stage 6
voluntary behavior intended to benefit on each other such as helping sharing or comforting others.
prosocial behavior
Uses vignettes aimed at choosing between helping someone or meeting their own needs.
prosocial moral judgment
decisions that pertain to issues of right and wrong, fairness, and justice
moral judgements
decisions that pertain to customs or regulations intended to secure social coordination and social organization
Social conventional judgments:
decisions that refer to actions in which individual preferences are the main consideration
Personal judgments:
children play together, creating dramas, taking turns, interaction, with reciprocity.
cooperative
children interact, sharing material, but their play is not reciprocal
associative
Children play with similar objects and in similar ways, but not together.
parallel
a child watches other children play
onlooker
playing alone, unaware of any other children playing nearby.
solitary play
By age 2 or before what do researchers argue?
Kids can have friends
By 12-18 months kids
select and prefer some children over others
Around 20 months of age kids:
iniate interactions with some children over others
By age 2 kids:
develop skills that allow greater complexity in their social interactions
By age 3-4 kids:
make and maintain friendships with peers
By age 3-7 kids:
have “best friends” that are stable over a couple months
Peer interaction in infancy??
Do not show preference to peers or recognition of other babies
Sensorimotor thinking occurs at what age?
4-6 months
act out various roles and themes in stories they create.
sociodramatic play
play that mimics aggression but in which there is no intent to harm.
rough and tumble play
Friendship at 20-24 months:
Contribute more to interactions with preferred playmates than with non-preferred playmates
The extent to which a child is liked or disliked by their peers as a group.
Sociometric status
Kids with poor emotion regulation and poor social info processing ability:
Agressive-rejected children
Wary, timid, and socially awkward.
Often anxious and shy.
These children want to engage with peers but lack the social skills to do so.
withdrawn-rejected children
Display relatively few behaviors that differ greatly from those of many other children
Appear to be neglected primarily because they are not noticed.
Is a transient category (not stable from year to year).
Neglected children
______ _______, especially those who are _________, are more likely than their peers to have difficulties in the academic domain.
rejected children, aggressive
Repeated acts of aggression (intention to harm) against those who are unable to defend themselves or are of a lesser social standing.
Excludes acts of teasing among equal peers
victimization/bullying
