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Human Physiology-SR > FINAL EXAM > Flashcards

FINAL EXAM Flashcards

1
Q

The anaerobic production of ATP is known as

A

Glycolysis

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2
Q

The regeneration of ATP goes from a 6 Carbon molecule known as __________, which reacts with __ ATP, forming 2 _________ acids which are 3 Carbons each.

A

The regeration of ATP goes from a 6 Carbon molecule known as Glucose, which reacts with 2 ATP, forming 2 pyruvic acids which are 3 Carbons each.

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3
Q

Using oxygen and mitochondrial enzymes and cytochroms to regenerate ATP is known as

A

The TCA Cycle & Fatty-Acid Oxidation

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4
Q

This cycle is also known as Krebs cycle, which is known as oxidative phosphorylation

A

The TCA Cycle

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5
Q

What is the byproduct of the TCA Cycle?

A

CO2

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6
Q

After Glycolysis occurs, ATP production from the aerobic breakdown of carbohydrates like glucose, using the co-enzyme A “shuttle” into this area of the cell

A

Mitochondria

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7
Q

Fatty-acid oxidation occurs from the ATP production from the breakdown of _____ _____, using O2 and mitochondrial enzymes and cytochromes.

A

fatty acids

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8
Q

What are the by-products of fatty-acid oxidation?

A

CO2 and the “ketone bodies”

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9
Q

What are the 3 ketone bodies?

A

AAA, HBA and acetone

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10
Q

Ketone bodies can be used in ALL tissues for energy EXCEPT in the…

A

liver

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11
Q

At high/low levels, keto-acids HBA and AAA can cause dangerous changes in ______ _______.

A

At high levels, keto-acids HBA and AAA can cause dangerous changes in blood acidity.

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12
Q

Recruiting sources of energy from different organs or tissues for energy during starvation. Liver cells are essential. This is known as

A

Whole-animal biochemistry

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13
Q

Liver & muscle cells can both STORE excess glucose as _______, when stimulated by the pancreatic hormone, ________.

A

Liver & muscle cells can both STORE excess glucose as glycogen, when stimulated by the pancreatic hormone, insulin.

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14
Q

Pancreatic hormone

A

insulin

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15
Q

What cells are the only ones capable of secreting glucose into the blood?

A

liver cells

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16
Q

What do liver cells need to be stimulated by in order to secrete glucose into the blood?

A

Cortisol, glucagon and epinephrine

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17
Q

What type of cell cannot secrete their glucose?

A

Muscle cells

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18
Q

What is the process of storing glucose as glycogen in the muscle and liver?

A

While dietary carbs are digested, they create blood glucose. When blood glucose is added with insulin, it then produces liver glycogen and muscle glycogen.

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19
Q

When glucose is released, how is it different between how the muscle glycogen is released versus how the liver glycogen is released?

A

Muscle glycogen uses epinephrine to create glucose, which is then used internally only by that muscle cell.

Liver glycogen uses glucagon and epinephrine to create glucose, which is then secreted to blood glucose and can be used throughout the body.

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20
Q

New glucose synthesis during starvation is known as

A

gluconeogenesis

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21
Q

T/F: New glucose is synthesized by the liver from fats (glycerol) and proteins (amino acids) recruited from other tissues.

A

True

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22
Q

All processes of gluconeogenesis are stimulated by the adrenal hormone known as

A

cortisol

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23
Q

What is the adrenal hormone?

A

cortisol

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24
Q

This hormone is short-acting, from the pancreas islets, and favors storage of potential energy supplies

A

insulin

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25
Q

T/F: When insulin affects the liver cells and muscle cells, it increases uptake of blood glucose and amino acids, as well as increasing synthesis of glucose , which produces glycogen and amino acids.

A

True

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26
Q

T/F: When insulin affects fat cells, it decreases the synthesis of glycerol and fatty acids into triglycerides (fats)

A

False, INSULIN INCREASES THE SYNTHESIS OF GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS INTO TRYGLYCERIDES (FATS)

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27
Q

This hormone is short-acting, from the pancreas islets, and favors the release of glucose

A

Glucagon

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28
Q

T/F: When glucagon affects the liver cells, it does so by breaking down the glycogen into glucose and then releasing it into the blood.

A

True

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29
Q

This hormone is short-acting, from the adrenal medulla, it favors the release of glucose from the liver, and it is found in the muscle.

A

Epinephrine

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30
Q

Do glucagon and epinephrine affect the liver cells in the same way?

A

Yes

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31
Q

T/F: When epinephrine affects the liver cells, it breaks down glycogen into glucose which is then released into the blood.

A

True

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32
Q

T/F: When epinephrine affects muscle cells, it breaks down glycogen into glucose. Which then can be used wherever.

A

FALSE! GLUCOSE IN MUSCLE CELLS CAN ONLY BE USED IN MUSCLE CELLS!

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33
Q

The hormone of starvation

A

cortisol

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34
Q

This hormone is long-acting, from the adrenal cortex, and stimulates gluconeogenesis

A

Cortisol

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35
Q

T/F: Cortisol is used in liver cells to stimulate enzyme production for converting.

A

True

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36
Q

This hormone is known as T3, it is long-acting, and from thyroid follicle cells

A

Thyroid hormone

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37
Q

What type of hormone increases metabolic rate in all tissues except thyroid gland cells.

A

Thyroid hormone (T3)

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38
Q

As found in the sequence of events in starvation, at how many days can death occur?

A

60 days

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39
Q

How many amino acids are there that cannot be synthesized from the precursors by humans?

A

9 amino acids

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40
Q

What are 5 of the 9 amino acids that cannot be synthesized from the precursors by humans?

A
  • Histidine
  • Isoleucine
  • Leucine
  • Lysine
  • Methionine
  • Phenylalanine
  • Threonine
  • Tryptophan
  • Valine
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41
Q

Insulin is known as a

A

51 aa polypeptide

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42
Q

How many chains are in insulin?

A

2 chains

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43
Q

What are the 2 chains found in insulin?

A

A=21 aa and B=30 aa

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44
Q

In insulin, there are 2 chains held in place with three ___________ _________, formed between cysteine amino acids.

A

Disulfide Bridges

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45
Q

Where is insulin made?

A

In beta cells of islets of Langerhans in the pancrease

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46
Q

What is the percentage of insulin cells in the islets?

A

40-70%

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47
Q

What type of insulin is closest to human insulin?

A

Pig insulin

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48
Q

How does pig insulin differ from human insulin?

A

Differs by 1 aa at the end of the B chain

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49
Q

What company can convert pig to human insulin chemically?

A

The Eli Lilly Company

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50
Q

Recombinant human insulin known as _______, is synthesized in bacteria. The A & B chains are synthesized separately and then linked together.

A

Humulin

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51
Q

What are the 2 substitute insulins?

A

Pig insulin & Recombinant human insulin (Humulin)

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52
Q

What is the major overall effect of insulin?

A

To decrease blood glucose primarily by actions on the liver, resting muslce & fat tissues.

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53
Q

What is the normal fasting blood glucose?

A

80-110mg/100mL of blood

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54
Q

What are the 4 stimuli for insulin secretion?

A

High blood glucose
High blood amino acids
Vagus nerve stimulation
Caffeine

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55
Q

Does vagus nerve stimulation occur in the sympathetic nervous system or the parasympathetic nervous system?

A

parasympathetic

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56
Q

How many peptide chains does glucagon have?

A

1 polypeptide chain

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57
Q

How many amino acids does glucagon have?

A

31 amino acids

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58
Q

Where is glucagon made?

A

Glucagon is made in the alpha cells of islets in the pancreas

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59
Q

What is the major overall effect of glucagon?

A

To increase blood glucose primarily by its actions on the liver

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60
Q

What is the difference between insulin and glucagon?

A

Insulin decreases blood glucose and glucagon increases blood glucose

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61
Q

What is the stimulation required for glucagon release?

A

Low blood glucose

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62
Q

T/F: Insulin actions oppose the actions of glucagon & cortisol.

A

TRUE

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63
Q

T/F: In general, all of insulin’s effects tend to lower blood glucose and prevent gluconeogenesis.

A

True

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64
Q

What does insulin do to the liver?

A
  • Increases uptake of glucose
  • Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen
  • Increases uptake of amino acids
  • Increases protein synthesis
  • Increases synthesis of fats
  • Decreases gluconeogenesis
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65
Q

What does insulin do to the resting muscle?

A
  • Increases uptake of glucose
  • Increases glucose utilization
  • Increases conversion of glucose to glycogen
  • Increases uptake of amino acids
  • Increases protein synthesis
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66
Q

What does insulin do to adipose tissue (fat tissue)?

A

-Increases synthesis of fats

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67
Q

What are the 3 tissues that DO NOT require insulin to function?

A
  • brain and peripheral nerves
  • gastrointestinal tract
  • exercising muscle (heart)
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68
Q

Explain the mechanism of insulin action…

A

Insulin binds to an insulin receptor protein on the outside of a target cell; the insulin receptor protein contains an enzyme, tyrosine kinase, which becomes active and starts an enzyme cascade to trigger the effects of insulin inside the cell.

69
Q

The insulin receptor protein contains an enzyme, what is this called?

A

Tyrosine kinase

70
Q

What does glucagon do to the liver?

A
  • Decreases uptake of glucose from blood
  • Increases conversion of glycogen to glucose
  • Decreases uptake of amino acids from blood
  • Decreases protein synthesis
  • Decreases synthesis of fats from fatty acids in blood and glycerol
71
Q

Explain the mechanism of glucagon action…

A

Glucagon binds to a glucagon membrane receptor outside of the cell, the filled receptor protein activates a coupling protein in the membrane, called a “G-protein”. The G-protein activates a nearby adenylate cyclase enzyme protein inside the cell, the cyclase enzyme generates cyclic AMP (from ATP) inside the cell. Cyclic AMP starts a cascade of enzyme activations leading to glycogen breakdown & other actions. The cyclic AMP (“cAMP” for short) is called a “second messenger” since, like the first messenger, the hormone glucagon, it starts a series of reactions inside the cell.

72
Q

What is the coupling protein in the membrane called?

A

G-protein

73
Q

This starts a cascade of enzyme activations leading to glycogen breakdown & other actions.

A

Cyclic AMP or cAMP

74
Q

What is the normal fasting blood glucose rate?

A

80-110 mg/100ml blood

75
Q

BG stands for

A

Fasting blood glucose

76
Q

If a patient has hyperglycemia, what does this mean according to their fasting blood glucose (BG) rate?

A

Hyperglycemia means ABOVE normal BG

77
Q

If a patient has hypoglycemia, what does this mean according to their fasting blood glucose (BG) rate?

A

Hypoglycemia means BELOW normal BG

78
Q

What condition occurs when the fasting blood glucose rate is >126 mg%?

A

Diabetes mellitus

79
Q

What condition occurs when the fasting blood glucose rate is

A

serious CNS signs, blurred speech

80
Q

What are the cardinal signs of diabetes?

A
  • Excessive urine production

- Honeyed urine : glucose in urine

81
Q

to describe excessive urine production, it is termed

A

“flowing through”

82
Q

mellitus=

A

honeyed

83
Q

If urine is at a mellitus state (or honeyed) it is when glucose is found in the urine, this is also known as

A

The renal threshold or the transport maximum

84
Q

What is the clinical definition of diabetes?

A

fasting blood glucose > 126 mg% in 2 successive readings

85
Q

What are the 2 forms of diabetes?

A

Type I Diabetes

Type II Diabetes

86
Q

Which form of diabetes is insulin requiring, and which is not?

A

Type I diabetes requires insulin use, type II diabetes does not!

87
Q

About 10-20% of diabetics are this type

A

Type I

88
Q

About 80-90% of diabetics are this type

A

Type II

89
Q

This type of diabetes is when almost no endogenous insulin is produced and there are almost no functioning BETA cells.

A

Type I Diabetes

90
Q

This type of diabetes is the most common form, insulin levels are near normal, but insulin resistance is present.

A

Type II Diabetes

91
Q

In type I diabetes, what are the symptoms like?

A

Symptoms are severe to life-threatening

92
Q

In type II diabetes, what are the symptoms like?

A

Symptoms are mild to severe

93
Q

When is the onset of type I diabetes?

A

Onset usually 5-20 years old

94
Q

When is the onset of type II diabetes?

A

Onset in middle age, 40-50 years old

95
Q

Which type of diabetes is associated with obesity?

A

Type II Diabetes

96
Q

Can type II diabetes be controlled by diet and exercise without drugs?

A

Yes

97
Q

In type II diabetes, why does the insulin resistance occur?

A

Insulin resistance is due to decreased efficiency of insulin receptors on target cells

98
Q

When does acute diabetic crisis occur?

A
  • No or almost no insulin production
  • Failure of glucose uptake by liver, fat and resting muscle
  • Failure of glucose utilization by same tissues
  • Unopposed stimulation of gluconeogenesis by cortisol: liver produces glucose from amino acids and glycerol
99
Q

If acute diabetic crisis occurs, what does it lead to?

A

Hyperglycemia

100
Q

What is another term for angiopathy?

A

Atherosclerosis

101
Q

Chronically high blood glucose causes capillary and arteriolar defect, what is this known as?

A

Microangiopathy

102
Q

Microhemorrhages lead to…

A 
Diabetic retinopathy (blindness)
Diabetic Glomerulopathy (kidney failure)
103
Q

Diabetic retinopathy is known as

A

blindness

104
Q

Diabetic glomerulopathy is known as

A

kidney failure

105
Q

What are the 2 long-term problems of poorly controlled diabetes?

A

Angiopathy (Atherosclerosis) & Neuropathy (Nerve Damage)

106
Q

Chronically high glucose in and around sensory nerve cells first causes tingling, then blocks action potentials, what is this known as?

A

Neuropathy

107
Q

Where is the hypothalamus formed from?

A

The two sides of the third ventricle of the brain

108
Q

Where do some of the hypothalamus’s axons extend down into?

A

The posterior pituitary gland

109
Q

What is the hypothalamus composed of?

A
  • nerve cells
  • glial cells
  • ependymal cells that make cerebrospinal fluid
110
Q

What does the hypothalamic nuclei control?

A
  • temperature
  • appetite
  • thirst
  • sleep
  • sexual behavior
111
Q

This area responds to excess body heat

A

Anterior Hypothalamic Area

112
Q

This area responds to environmental cold

A

Posterior Hypothalamic Area

113
Q

Of the anterior hypothalamic area and the posterior hypothalamic area, which area stimulates skin vasodilation, perspiration and apathy and which area stimulates shivering, skin vasoconstriction and hunger?

A

The anterior hypothalamic area stimulates skin vasodilation, perspiration, and apathy.

The posterior hypothalamic area stimulates shivering, skin vasoconstriction, and hunger.

114
Q

What does core temperature represent?

A

The combined heat loss and heat production of the body.

115
Q

What is core temperature?

A

the abdominal cavity temperature

116
Q

What is the normal core temperature?

A

37 degrees C +/- .5 degrees C

117
Q

Muscle contraction or shivering is one way the hypothalamus mechanisms to raise body temperature, this is causing ____________ of vessels near the surface of the skin.

A

Vasoconstriction

118
Q

Hypothermia is when the body temperature is high/low?

A

low

119
Q

Hyperthermia is when the body temperature is high/low?

A

high

120
Q

What is any agent that causes fever known as?

A

Pyrogens

121
Q

If you have a fever, you have….

A

hyperthermia

122
Q

What is the treatment of fever?

A

1) Increase heat loss: cold compresses, light clothing & bedding
2) Administer anti-pyrogens: aspirin, ibuprofen, APAP

123
Q

If one has a fever or hyperthermia, when does it become dangerous and when does it become potentially fatal?

A

Danger begins at 41 degrees C or 106 degrees F

Fatal is at 43 degrees C or 109 degrees F

124
Q

Symptoms of hypothermia begin at what temperature?

A

32 degrees C or 90 degrees F

125
Q

At what point of hypothermia does a victim lose consciousness?

A

28 degrees C or 83 degrees F

126
Q

What are some causes of hypothermia?

A
  • excessive heat loss due to wind evaporation over skin
  • conduction loss to cold water known as immersion hypothermia
  • insufficient muscle heat due to exhaustion
127
Q

What are common signs of hypothermia?

A
  • slurred speech
  • poor motor control, fumbling
  • irrational behavior
128
Q

What is the treatment for hypothermia?

A

1) Remove from wind
2) Move carefully, do not jostle
3) Change to dry, windproof clothes ASAP, do not overwrap
4) Monitor heart for irregularities-Be prepared to do CPR
5) Make a body sandwich
6) Do not give alcohol or sedatives
7) Do not leave unattended

129
Q

pituitary=

A

hypophysis

130
Q

anterior pituitary=

A

adenohypophysis

131
Q

posterior pituitary=

A

neurohypophysis

132
Q

hypophysectomy=

A

removal of pituitary

133
Q

sella turcica=

A

bony casing enclosing pituitary

134
Q

infundibulum=

A

stalk

135
Q

This is where optic nerves cross behind the eyeballs; a landmark for locating hypothalamus structures.

A

Optic Chiasm

136
Q

T/F: All of the pituitary and hypothalamus hormones are proteins or polypeptides.

A

True

137
Q

This type of hormone consists of two protein subunits, each with carbohydrates attached.

A

Glycoprotein hormone

138
Q

This type of hormone is one unit with no carbohydrate groups

A

Protein hormones

139
Q

Pituitary cells that produce ACTH are called

A

corticotrophs

140
Q

Pituitary cells that produce TSH are called

A

thyrotrophs

141
Q

Pituitary cells that produce FSH are called

A

gonadotrophs

142
Q

Pituitary cells that produce LH are also called

A

gonadotrophs

143
Q

Pituitary cells that produce GH are called

A

somatotrophs

144
Q

Pituitary cells that produce prolactin (PRL) are called

A

lactotrophs

145
Q

This is the process of forming haploid (1N) sperm cells from diploid parent cells by the process of meiosis

A

Spermatogenesis

146
Q

In the control of testosterone secretion, the effect of the negative feedback system is to

A

keep blood testosterone levels constant

147
Q

These secrete LH, which stimulate the conversion of cholesterol to testosterone in the Leydig interstitial cells found in the testis, outside of the seminiferous tubules.

A

Gonadotrophs

148
Q

These like the inside of the seminiferous tubules of the testis, they are intimately associated with developing germ cells that will become sperm.

A

Sertoli cells

149
Q

What carries testosterone into the tubules and is necessary for normal sperm production?

A

Androgen binding protein: ABP

150
Q

This is a 19-carbon steroid, made in the Leydig cells of the testis

A

Testosterone

151
Q

Effects of testosterone:

A
  • ANABOLIC, promotes peripheral protein synthesis (muscle)
  • Testis: stimulates spermatogenesis
  • Increased amount of myofibrils and muscle size
  • Increased bone
  • Promotes hair growth
152
Q

T/F: All anabolic steroids are testosterone derivatives.

A

True

153
Q

In the testis, this stimulates interstitial Leydig cell growth and synthesis of testosterone.

A

LH

154
Q

In males, this acts on the sertoli cells of the testis to make ABP, which increases the concentration of testosterone in the seminiferous tubule, increasing the rate of spermatogenesis.

A

FSH

155
Q

This is a 14-aa releasing hormone, made in the hypothalamus, that stimulates the release of both FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary gland.

A

GnRH

156
Q

This is a 560-aa protein secreted from the sertoli cells early in embryonic life which inhibits the growth of the precursors of the female reproductive tract tissues during the first 12 weeks’ gestation.

A

Mullerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS)

157
Q

Basic anatomy of lacteal gland & duct development:

A
  • lacteal glands

- lacteal ducts lined with myoepithelial cells, converging on nipple

158
Q

What is the milk that is made just a few days before parturition, it is the baby’s first milk for 24-48 hours.

A

Witch’s milk or colostrum

159
Q

Even though prolactin hormone levels are very high at parturition, there are very few prolactin hormone receptors in the lacteal gland, so what does this mean?

A

They cannot synthesize milk

160
Q

T/F: Low estrogen and progesterone inhibit the synthesis of prolactin hormone receptors.

A

FALSE, high estrogen and progesterone inhibit the synthesis of prolactin hormone receptors

161
Q

What does the continue milk synthesis in the lacteal glands require to release prolactin from the pituitary?

A

It requires physical stimulation of the nipples by nursing

162
Q

What is the link called between the sensory nerves of the nipple and the release of the hormone?

A

neuroendocrine arc

163
Q

Explain the neuroendocrine arc…

A

Sucking stimulated nipple touch-receptor nerves which stimulates the hypothalamus neurosecretory cells which promotes the release of prolactin releasing hormone. This then produces new milk for the next feeding!

164
Q

EPT and other pregnancy tests use a strip that is dipped into a urine sample to test for the presence of the hormone….

A

hCG

165
Q

High cortisol=

A

Cushing’s syndrome

166
Q

low cortisol=

A

Addison’s disease

167
Q

high DHEA=

A

adrenogenital syndrome

168
Q

high ACTH=

A

abnormal skin pigmentation

Human Physiology-SR (3 decks)

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