Exam 1- February 19th Flashcards
1
Q
Phospholipid molecules make up most of the ______ bilayer.
A
Lipid
2
Q
The lipid bilayer includes __________ and cardiac glycosides.
A
Cholesterol
3
Q
“polar” end means that this highly charged phosphate group is considered
A
hydrophilic
4
Q
“non-polar” end means that the two long uncharged carbon chains that form tails is considered
A
hydrophobic
5
Q
Phospholipids are ___________, which means they are both water and lipid soluble.
A
amphipathic
6
Q
Embedded in the lipid bilayer are membrane _______ which penetrate one or both of the lipid layers.
A
proteins
7
Q
Model of individual proteins floating about the lipid bilayer
A
Singer-Nicholson fluid mosaic model
8
Q
To move things into or out of the cell or vis-versa
A
Transport
9
Q
3 things that are transported
A
1) Protein pores & gated channels
2) Carrier Proteins or Transporters
3) Na+/K+ ATPase Enzyme proteins
10
Q
This function of cell membrane proteins is important in immunology & development
A
Recognition
11
Q
Recognition surfaces glycoproteins as _______.
A
markers
12
Q
Recognition also places antigen-recognition receptors on _______ cells.
A
immune
13
Q
One function of cell membrane proteins is to surface protein receptors for hormones, nerve transmitters & other factors; physical stimuli. Which cell membrane protein does this?
A
Signal Reception
14
Q
Attach cell to cell
A
protein junctions
15
Q
Stick cell to surface for crawling, anchoring, and association of cells into tissues.
A
Adhesion proteins
16
Q
Separation of charges/_____ causes a voltage to develop. Especially important in explaining actions of nerve, muscle and hair-cell membranes.
A
ions
17
Q
These enzymes are associated with receptor or carrier proteins or alone.
A
Membrane-attached Enzymes
18
Q
This gives the cell its shape
A
cytoskeleton
19
Q
A ______ is made up of more than 100 ______ ______, connected by ________ _______.
A
Protein is made up of more than 100 amino acids, connected by peptide bonds.
20
Q
Shorter chains are called
A
polypeptides
21
Q
How many different amino acids are used in human proteins?
A
21
22
Q
How many different amino acids can be used in plant proteins?
A
Up to 26
23
Q
Several proteins may bind together to form a single large assembly called a
A
multimeric protein
24
Q
In multimeric proteins, each protein component is called a
A
sub-unit
25
Membranes are ___________ permeable.
selectively
26
Molecules move through the membrane in different ways, depending whether they are __________ or __________.
Hydrophilic or Hydrophobic
27
Some molecules may move through a membrane with no added energy, this is known as passive _______ or passive _______.
Passive transport or passive diffusion
28
Examples of lipid-soluble solutes transported through the phospholipid layer are:
gases, fat-soluble vitamins, fats, and steroid hormones
29
Examples of solutes transported through pores are:
H+ ion, K+ ion, Cl- ion, urea, and water
30
Examples of solutes transported by carrier proteins through the membrane:
glucose, other simples sugars, amino acids and nucleic acids
31
This does not require added energy because it uses thermal energy already present in all molecules with a temperature.
Passive transport
32
Another term for passive transport is
passive diffusion
33
When a substance moves by lipid solubility through the phospholipid bilayer it is referred to as a
lipid-soluble solute
34
Gases (CO2 and 02), the fat soluble vitamins (A,D,E and K), fats, steroid hormones (estrogen, testosterone, cortisol) are all examples of what?
lipid-soluble solutes
35
Water filled pores are known as
channels
36
When a substance moves through water-filled pores it is known as a
solute
37
H+ ions, K+ ions, Cl- ions, urea, and water are all examples of what?
Solutes that can be transported through pores
38
Glucose, other simple sugars, amino acids and nucleic acids are all examples of what?
Solutes that can be transported by carrier proteins through the membrane
39
What does not require added energy?
Passive Transport
40
As a rule of passive transport, the membrane must be _______ _________ to a given substance, this way molecules can pass through the membrane coming in or going out.
Selectively permeable
41
As another rule of passive transport, passive transport is ____________, meaning that molecules may move in both directions.
bidirectional
42
One rule of passive transport states that molecules, ions, or atoms always move from _____ concentration to _____ concentration.
high to low
43
The movement of each species of particle by passive transport is considered _________. For further explanation, the movement of glucose, urea, Na+ ion and glycine would depend on the IN/OUT concentrations of each considered without regard to the others.
separately
44
The rate of passive transport or passive diffusion of a particular substance is proportional to the permeability factor and to the difference in concentrations on each side of a membrane. This equation looks like....
Rate=PX [X out - X in]
45
The permeability of water through a membrane is considered equal to
1
46
1 mole =
6.02 x10^23 molecules/atoms/particles
47
Water only moves by _______ ________ through membrane pores. Therefore, water only moves from HIGH [H20] to LOW [H2O].
passive transport
48
NaCl, CaCl2, Na2CO3 are all examples that....
ionize in water
49
sucrose, glucose, urea and glycerol are all examples that...
will not ionize in water, non-ionizing ions
50
If a solution is iso-osmotic, the cell neither _____ nor _____, but remains the same _______.
If a solution is iso-osmotic, the cell neither swells nor shrinks, but remains the same volume.
51
_____ moles of dissolved particles/liter, is ISO-OSMOTIC for mammalian cells (including red blood cells).
0.29
52
A solution is ________ if the [dissolved particles] is less than iso-osmotic.
Hypotonic
53
Hypotonic solutions will cause the cell to.....
swell
54
A solution is ________ if the [dissolved particles] is greater than iso-osmotic.
Hypertonic
55
Hypertonic solutions will cause the cell to...
shrink
56
-ase means
enzyme
57
(Active Transport Example)
| This gland is active in iodide ion uptake
Thyroid gland
58
(Active Transport Example)
| This intestine is active in transport of glucose and other simple sugars, amino acids and nucleic acids.
Small intestine
59
(Active Transport Example)
This organ has a lot of work to do, it is active in the transport of Na+ ions, Cl- ions, K+ ions, H+ ions, glucose, amino acids, Ca2+ ions, and bicarbonate ions.
Kidney
60
T/F: ALL CELLS exchange Na+ and K+ with Na+/K+ ATPase, these are known as chlorine-potassium pumps.
False, known as sodium-potassium pumps
61
Within the sodium-potassium pumps, 2 K+ IONS are transported to the _____ of the cell in exchange for 3 Na+ IONS transported to the _____ of the cell.
inside, outside
62
Passive transport always moves from [high] to [low], but what kind of transport can move from [low] to [high]?
Active transport can move from [low] to [high].
63
potential to do electrical work (measured in volts)
electrical potential
64
T/F: Electrical current is the movement of electrical charges (+ or - ions), as they do electrical work (measured in amperes). In cells, the electric current is carried by ions instead of electrons. The current is created when separated positive and negative charges come back together.
True
65
Opposite charges (ions) attract each other; like charges (ions) repel each other, this is known as the
charge rules
66
Protein structures in the cell membrane that allow ions or water to pass into or out of the cell
Channels or pores
67
protein channels through the membrane which can open and close are called Some gated channels open or close with a chemical, electrical or physical stimulus.
Gated Channels
68
proteins that change shape with a stimulus and open or close the channel
gates
69
Some gated channels open or close with certain stimuli, what are the three stimuli potentials?
Chemical, electrical or physical stimulus
70
Chemical Stimulus is considered
ligand-gated
71
Electrical stimulus is considered
voltage-gated
72
physical stimulus is considered
pressure-, heat-, etc-gated
73
separation of membrane to create an electrical potential
separation of charges
74
electrical potential in all cells during rest (always negative inside relative to outside)
resting potential
75
inside of cell become more positive relative to outside
depolarization
76
inside of cell becomes more negative relative to outside
hyperpolarization
77
the cell returns to its original resting potential
repolarization
78
a self-propagating, positive (depolarizing) "spike" of current through the membrane, followed by a re-setting to the resting potential (repolarization).
Action Potential
79
Action potentials only occur in ________ cells.
excitable
80
Nerve cells, Muscle cells, Fertilized ovum and secretory cells are all cells that ______ _________ can occur in.
Action potential
81
minimum cell potential above the resting potential to start an action potential
threshold
82
self-propagating in-rush of sodium ions during an action potential
"Runaway Depolariziation" or "Sodium Cycle"
83
used to describe the action potential, which, once started, cannot be stopped or charged in size
"All or none"
84
the process of resetting of membrane potential to resting potential after runaway depolarization
"Repolarization"
85
movement of action potentials along the cell membrane from one part of the cell to another
"Propagation of the Action Potential"
86
The movement of action potentials in a myelinated nerve, from one node to the next node down.
"Saltatory Propagation"
87
________ ___________ (in "volts") is created in living cells by ions and can be used to create electrical current (in "amperes")
Electrical Potential
88
_________ __________ create electrical potential by separating positive and negative charges. (Separation of charges)
Cell membranes
89
This occurs as a result of (A) an imbalance in passive transport of ions [from high to low concentrations] and (B) the rules of electric charges [likes repel;opposites attract]
Separation of charges
90
What are the three general types of nerves?
Motor Nerves
Sensory Nerves
Interneurons
91
This nerve goes from the central nervous system to muscles
Motor Nerves
92
This nerve goes from sensory receptors to the central nervous system
Sensory Nerves
93
This nerve has two processes--axons and dendtrites-- and they are all over within the central nervous system
Interneurons
94
T/F: All cells have higher potassium ion (K+) concentrations inside and higher sodium ion (Na+), calcium ion (Ca++) and chloride ion (Cl-) concentrations outside.
True
95
What channel proteins are numerous and always partly open?
Potassium channel proteins
96
What is an example of channel proteins that are few or closed?
Na+
97
membrane voltage caused by separation of charges
Em
98
The _______ the Em, the greater potential to do electrical work.
larger
99
The _______ _________ is due to the movement of potassium (K+) ions, the only ion that can freely cross the membrane when the cell is at rest.
resting potential
100
When K+ ions leave the cell, what do they leave behind?
Immovable negative charges
101
balance point is called
equilibrium potential
102
T/F: The speed of propagation is not proportional to the diameter of nerve and whether it is myelinated or not.
False: IS PROPORTIONAL
103
Nerve propagation in an _____________ (naked) nerve is from patch-to-patch.
Unmyelinated
104
Nerve propagation down a _________ nerve is from node-to-node. Myelin speeds up propagation by about 100x compared to unmyelinated nerves.
myelinated
105
Myelination of nerve axons are wrappings of cell membranes from inside the central nervous system, these are called:
Oligodendrocytes
106
Myelination of nerve axons are wrappings of cell membranes in periphery (outside of brainstem & spinal cord), these are called
Schwann Cells
107
Very regular open areas that are the only exposed membrane with sodium channels that can allow Na+ ions in when stimulated.
Nodes of Ranvier
108
What is the most common diseases which causes demyelination of nerves and eventual paralysis?
Multiple Sclerosis (MS) and Amyotrophic lateral Sclerosis (ALS; Lou Gehrig's Disease)
109
Fastest saltatory propagation is 120 meters/second (268mph), where does this occur?
In the largest, myelinated motor nerves.
110
connections or relay points between nerves and other nerves, between nerves and muscle, between nerves and glands and even between nerves and capillaries.
Synapses
111
motor nerves
nerves to muscle
112
motor-end-plates or myoneural junctions
motor nerves to muscle cells
113
Two basic types of synapses
chemical and electrical
114
This synapse contains a transmitter substance which has been synthesized in the presynaptic nerve cell body, packaged in membrane vesicles and transported to the nerve endings.The time involved is about 0.5 millisecond per synapse. The synapse only works in one direction.
Chemical Synapse
115
The time involved per synapse is known as the
synaptic delay
116
Nerve to nerve;
Motor nerve to muscle;
neurosecretory nerve to capillary;
ALL EXAMPLES OF WHAT SYNAPSE
Chemical synapse
117
Synapse common in inverts and lower vertebrates, less common in mammals
Electrical synapse
118
This synapse has electrical connections between cells which allow the free passage of ions through specialized protein pores through both adjacent cell membranes. This allows the cells to be electrically connected, or electrically-coupled. There is no synaptic delay and action potentials can travel both ways.
Electrical synapse
119
specialized protein pores are known as
gap junctions
120
Pore protein is made up of protein units called
connexin
121
CNS nerve to CNS nerve is an example of what type of synapse
Electrical synapse
122
In a chemical synapse, turning "off" requires either:
inactivation or re-uptake
123
The transmitter side of a chemical synapse is known as the
presynaptic side
124
The Receiver side of a chemical synapse is known as the
post=synaptic side
125
Excitatory transmitters are depolarizing, and they produce EPSP's. Some examples are
- acetylcholine
- nor-epinephrine
- dopamine
- glutamic acid
126
Inhibitory transmitters are hyperpolarizing, and they produce IPSP's. Some examples are
- gamma-amino butyric acid
| - serotonin
127
EPSP
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Potential
128
IPSP
Inhibitory Post-Synaptic Potential
129
The chemical signal, ACh, is turned "off" by __________ ________ in the postsynaptic muscle membrane?
Cholinesterase enzyme
130
This is constructed to produce an action potential every time
Motor end plate
131
Two Motor End-Plate synaptic poisons:
Curare & Succinyl Choline
132
Muscle fibers=
muscle cells
133
bundle of fibers
fasciculus
134
Muscle cells are ________: many nuclei in one cell, representing nuclear replication without cell division.
Syncitial
135
Smallest unit of muscle contraction
sarcomere
136
Hierarchy of muscle structures:
Muscle >Fasciculus>Fiber>Myofibril
137
True/False: A-Band (myosin thick filaments), containing, H-Band ("hangles" of golf-club-like mysocin filaments), held together by M-Disk (grid of myosin-binding proteins to hold thick filaments in register)
True
138
A-BAND
myosin thick filaments
139
H-BAND
"handles" of golf-club-like myosin filaments
140
M-DISK
grid of myosin-binding proteins to hold thick filaments in register
141
T/F: The I-BAND, split by Z-LINE or Z-DISK.
TRUE
142
I-BAND
exposed actin thin filaments
143
Z-LINE or Z-DISK
grid of actin-binding protein - actinin -- to hold thin filaments in register
144
In a thick filament, the head assembly is called
Heavy meromyosin
145
In a thick filament, the rest of the shaft is called
light meromyosin
146
Myosin heads can be found in two positions:
Cocked position & Fired Position
147
This blocks myosin heads that are ready to make contact with actin and pull
tropomyosin
148
Ca++ released into cytoplasm, binds to this and then it bends the tropomyosin out of the way to expose the myosin-binding site on the actin filament
troponin C
149
enclosed membrane system that lies entirely within muscle cell/fiber, but comes into very close contact with the cell membrane through the cell membrane's transverse tubules.
sarcoplasmic reticulum
150
When an action potential travels over the muscle cell membrane, it propagates down the _________ ________ and opens the voltage-gated Ca++ channels, releasing a flood of Ca++ ions to the nearby sarcomeres, to start a contraction.
transverse tubules
151
A single contraction caused by a single action potential over the muslce
twitch
152
a sustained contraction without any relaxation caused by multiple action potentials over the muscle
tetanus
153
contraction force measured while muscle is not allowed to shorten
isometric
154
contraction force measured while muscle is under constant load, but allowed to shorten
isotonic
155
Maximal tetanic contractions are called
contractures or cramps
156
Maximum tetanic contractions caused by very rapid nerve stimulation is
>200 AP's/sec
157
time Ca++ is free in cytoplasm
duration of stimulation
158
membranes and connective tissue holding muscle cells together
passive eleastic elements
159
T/F: Glycolysis without O2 yields 2 ATP's per molecule of sucrose used.
False, glucose used
160
T/F: Glycolysis along with mitochondrial Kreb's cycle oxidation yields 22 ATP's per molecule of glucose used.
False: 38
161
This holds for skeletal muscle only: "When a muscle is passively stretched, then stimulated, it contracts with greater force -- within limits."
Length-Tension Relationship
162
Length-Tension Relationship is similar for the cardiac muscle, this is called
Frank-Starling Law of The Heart
163
fusion
incomplete relaxation
164
summation
incomplete relaxation with greater force
165
tetanus
sustained contraction with no relaxation
166
1 motor nerve and all the muscle fibers it innervates =
1 motor unit
167
striated forearm muscles of fingers, stapedius muscle of middle ear, extraocular muscles of eyeball are all:
Fast skeletal muscle fibers
168
all major skeletal muscles are called
intermediate skeletal muscle fibers
169
muscles of spinal column and lower back are
slow skeletal muscle fibers
170
Venous sinus, atria, and the ventricles of the heart are all
cardiac muscles
171
Non-striated muscles such as the stomach, large & small intestine, ureters, urinary bladder, part of the esophagus, etc are all
smooth mucles
172
this is found in all hollow visceral organs
Visceral smooth muscle
173
non spontaneously contracting; cells are independent, and there are no gap junctions in this muscle
munti-unit smooth muscle
174
responsible for higher levels of motor control, sensory analysis, memory, associative functions, including memory:
Cortex
175
responsible for basic motor control
Basal Ganglia
176
emotional responses
limbic system; amygdala, hypothalamus
177
coordination of motor control with sensory input
cerebellum
178
vegetative functions: respiration control, blood pressure control, swallowing, vomiting.
Brainstem
179
sensory inputs, site of somatic motor nerve cell bodies, some reflex circuits
spinal cord
180
protects the central nervous system
meninges
181
controls skeletal muscles
somatic motor system
182
this supplies the motor nerves to heart and smooth muscle organs -- blood vessels, bronchioles, digestive tract organs, reproductive tract organs, some glands.
Autonomic nervous system
183
originates in basal ganglia, its effector nerves release acetyl choline
Parasympathetic division
184
vagus nerve
cranial nerve
185
originates from the hypothalamus, its effector nerves release nor-epinephrine
sympathetic division
186
carry information from head and neck receptors
cranial nerves
187
carry information from peripheral receptors and enters them into the spinal cord through the dorsal roots
Spinal nerves
188
found in primates, sends motor commands from the motor cortex directly to motor nerves in the spinal cord which control the skeletal muscles
The Pyramidal Tract
189
leaving the CNS is referred to as
efferent
190
coming to the CNS is referred to as
afferent
191
This is the spray of spinal nerves leaving the base of the spinal cord, also known as the horse's tail
cauda equina
192
________ ______ at each segment carry sensory axons into CNS; ventral roots at each segment carry myelinated motor axons out of the cord to skeletal muscles.
Dorsal roots
193
mostly nerve cell bodies is called
gray matter
194
mostly myelinated axon bundles or tracts is called
white matter
195
These lie completely within the cord, and carry information up and down and across the spinal cord
interneurons
196
The autonomic nervous systems are the nerves that control
non-skeletal muscle activity
197
Non-skeletal muscle activity is considered the cardiac muscle, smooth muscle organs, as well as the secretory activity of
some glands
198
increases rate & strength of heart contraction via cardioaccelerator nerves, raising blood pressure
SNS
199
decreases saliva secretion from salivary glands
SNS
200
causes dilation of pupil
SNS
201
relaxes bronchiole smooth muscle, causing bronchiole dilatation
SNS
202
decreases motility and secretion in digestive tract
SNS
203
increased perspiration from sweat glands of the skin
SNS
204
arterioles constrict, raising blood pressure in blood vessels
SNS
205
constriction of renal arterioles stops kidney filtration function
SNS
206
secretion of epinephrine from adrenal medulla, which mimics most effects of nor-epinephrine
SNS
207
contraction of spleen to release extra blood cells into circ
SNS
208
mediates contraction of all accessory glands and emission reflex in male; promotes uterine contractions in female
SNS
209
decreases rate and strength of hear contraction
PNS
210
increases saliva secretion from salivary glands
PNS
211
causes constriction of pupil
PNS
212
increases motility and secretion of the digestive system
PNS
213
mediates micturition and defecation reflexes in the urinary bladder and rectum
PNS
214
general stimulation of sweat glands in the skin
PNS
215
stimulation of tear secretion in tear glands
PNS
216
promotes erection in erectile tissues of males and females via pelvic splanchnic nerves releasing ACh & VIP in sex organs
PNS
