Final Exam Flashcards
Name the three major layers of the skin from the outer surface going inward.
- Epidermis
- Dermis
- Hypodermis
Name and major function of the specialized cells of the epidermis.
- Keratinocytes
- Melanocytes
- Dendritic (Langerhans) cells
- Tactile (Merkel) cells
Starting at the basement membrane list and give a brief description of the layers of the epidermis.
- Stratum basale
- Stratum spinosum
- Stratum granulosum
- Stratum lucidum
- Stratum corneum
What are the functions of bone?
- Support
- Protection
- Movement
- Mineral and growth factor storage
- Blood cell formation
- Triglyceride (fat) storage
- Hormone production
Structure of long bone.
- Articular cartilage
- Proximal epiphysis
- Spongy bone
- Epiphyseal line
- Diaphysis
- Compact bone
- Medullary cavity (endosteum)
- Periosteum
- Distal epiphysis
Describe the cells of osseous tissue. i.e., What do osteoblasts do? Osteoclasts, etc?
- Osteogenic cell: stem cell, mitotically active
- Osteoblast: bone forming cell
- Osteocyte: monitors and maintains mineralized bone matrix
- Osteoclast: bone resorbing cell
Describe the histology of compact bone. What is the structural unit of compact bone?
- Histology: Central canal (artery, vein, nerve fiber), lamellae (concentric rings), and collagen fibers
- Structural unit: osteon
Structure and function of spongy bone.
- Trabeculae
- No osteons
- Irregular lamellae and and osteocytes connected by canaliculi
- Capillaries in endosteum provide nutrients
- Align along lines of stress to help resist it
Negative feedback hormonal loop for blood Ca2+ homeostasis.
- Stimulus: Falling Ca2+ blood levels
- Triggers parathyroid glads to release parathyroid hormone (PTH)
- Osteoclasts degrade bone matrix and release Ca2+ into blood
Bone homeostasis response to mechanical stress (e.g., Wolf’s Law)
- Bones grow and remodel based on the stress put on them
- Hormonal controls determine whether and when remodeling occurs
- Mechanical stress determines where remodeling occurs
What are the three regions of the axial skeleton?
- Skull
- Vertebral column
- Thoracic cage
List the sections of the vertebral column and know how many bones each has.
- Cervical vertebrae (7)
- Thoracic vertebrae (12)
- Lumbar vertebrae (5)
- Sacrum
- Coccyx
Compare and contrast cervical vertebrae, thoracic vertebrae and lumbar vertebrae. Which receives the most stress because it bears the most weight?
- Cervical: C1=axis, C2=atlas, C3-C7=oval body, short spinous process, large vertebral foramen, transverse foramen
- Thoracic: circular vertebral foramen, long spinous process that points downward
- Lumbar: massive bodies, receives most stress
Describe the ribs and their attachments.
- 12 pairs
- Attach posteriorly to thoracic vertebrae
- Pairs 1-7: True ribs, attach directly to sternum
- Pairs 8-12: False ribs
How are joints classified -structural, functional?
- Structural: fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial
- Functional: synarthrosis, amphiarthroses, diarthroses
Describe the three classes of fibrous joints and the two types of cartilaginous joints, where each type is found (Figs 8.1, 8.2).
- Three classes of fibrous joints: suture (skull), syndesmosis (fibula and tibia), gomphosis (teeth)
- Two classes of cartilaginous joints: synchondrosis (first rib and sternum), symphyses (between vertebrae)
Explain the characteristics of synovial joints.
- Articular cartilage
- Joint (Synovial) cavity
- Articular capsule
- Synovial fluid
- Reinforcing ligaments
Describe the structure of synovial joints. Function of bursae membranous sacs.
- Ligament
- Joint cavity with synovial fluid
- Articular cartilage
- Articular capsule (fibrous capsule and synovial membrane)
- Bursae: reduce friction
Describe the four types of movement based on planes.
- Nonaxial
- Uniaxial
- Biaxial
- Multiaxial
Describe the types of synovial joints.
- Plane
- Hinge
- Pivot
- Condyloid
- Saddle
- Ball and socket
Describe the three types of muscle.
- Skeletal
- Cardiac
- Smooth
Describe the structure of a sarcomere (the functional unit of skeletal muscle).
- Thick filaments (myosin)
- Thin filaments (actin)
- Z disc
- H zone
- M line
Describe the events of the sliding filament model of muscle contraction, include the actions of the SR, calcium, troponin, tropomyosin, myosin head, actin fiber, etc. What do the myosin heads attach to? Compare these to the events in smooth muscle.
- Motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber
- AP, ACh, ion permeability of sarcolemma changes, depolariation, end-plate potential
- Excitation-contraction coupling occurs
- AP across sarcolemma and T tubules, SR releases Ca2+, Ca2+ binds to troponin, myosin binding sites on actin exposed, myosin heads bind to actin
What causes muscles to relax?
- Ca2+ released from troponin
- Resorption of Ca2+ into SR
Describe the neuromuscular junction and the events that occur there, compare to varicosities in smooth muscle.
- AP arrives at axon terminal of motor neuron
- Ca2+ channels open and Ca2+ enters the axon terminal
- Ca2+ entry causes synaptic vessels to release ACh
- ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and binds to receptors in the sarcolemma
What is the role of each of the following in muscle (skeletal and smooth) contraction: Na+, Ca++, K+, Ach, acetylcholinesterase.
- Na+: moves into fiber
- Ca2+: binds to troponin
- K+: moves out of fiber
- ACh: binds to receptors on sarcolemma
- Acetylcholinesterase: break down ACh
Describe generation of an action potential. Describe propagation of an action potential.
- Local depolarization (end-plate potential)
- Generation and propagation of an action potential
- Repolarization
Describe the relationship between force and velocity in muscle contraction.
- Force: depends on number of fibers, size of muscles, frequency, degree of stretch
- Velocity: type, load, recruitment
How do muscles increase their force.
- Type and number of fibers
- Glycolytic: fast, fatigable
- Oxidative: slow, fatigue resistant
In muscle action what is the fixator, agonist, antagonist and synergist?
- Agonist: major responsibility for producing specific movement
- Antagonist: oppose agonist, reversing movements
- Synergist: assist agonist by recruitment or decreasing undesirable movement
- Fixator: immobilize a bone, creating a fulcrum
Describe now muscles are named.
- Location
- Shape
- Size
- Direction
- Number of origins
- Location of attachments
- Action
Describe the three classes of levers.
1st: Load-fulcrum-effort
2nd: Fulcrum-load-effort
3rd: Load-effort-fulcrum
What are the components of the central nervous system? Peripheral?
- CNS: Brain and spinal cord
- PNS: Spinal and cranial nerves
What is the function of the autonomic nervous system? Somatic?
- Autonomic: Conducts impulses from CNS to smooth muscle, cardiac muscles, and glands
- Peripheral: Conducts impulses from CNS to skeletal muscles
Can you diagram the organization of the nervous system and give functions for each division? (include sympathetic and parasympathetic from chapter 14.)
- Central Nervous System
- Peripheral Nervous System
- Sensory (afferent)
- Motor (efferent)- Somatic
- Autonomic: Sympathetic, Parasympathetic
What are nuclei and ganglia in the nervous system?
- Nuclei: clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
- Ganglia: clusters of cell bodies in the PNS
Describe a graded potential, action potential, relative refractory period, absolute refractory period, depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization, EPSP, IPSP –and summation. Specific role that Na+ and K+ play at each stage of the AP, including their concentration and permeability of the plasma membrane.
- Graded potential: incoming signals acting over short distances
- Action potential: long distance signals of axons
- Relative refractory period: axon’s threshold for impulse generation is elevated
- Absolute refractory period: ensures all-or-none event and enforces one way transmission
- Depolarization: reduced potential (more positive)
- Repolarization: more negative
- Hyperpolarization: increased potential (more negative)
- EPSP: summate to reach threshold
- IPSP: summate to reduce probability
- Summation
Know how voltage-gated ion channels and ligand-gated channels function.
- Voltage-gated: Open and close due to changes in membrane potential
- Ligand-gated: Open when the appropriate chemical signal is bound
All-or-none principle, stimulus strength and AP frequency, saltatory conduction.
- All-or-none: either AP occurs or threshold is not reached and no AP occurs
- Stimulus strength: generate nerve impulses more often
- AP frequency: determines strength
- Saltatory conduction: propagation of AP across myalinated axons
Describe the general structure of the brain.
- Cerebral hemisphere
- Diencephalon
- Cerebellum
- Brain stem
What are gyri? Sulci? Fissures? Why are they important?
- Gyri: ridges
- Sulci: shallow grooves
- Fissures: deep grooves
Where are the cell bodies of sensory neurons of the spinal nerves? Motor neurons of the spinal nerves?
- Sensory: dorsal root
- Motor: ventral root
Ventricles (locations, functions), cerebrospinal fluid (function, synthesis, composition), ependymal cells, meninges (location, function).
- Ventricles: lateral ventricles (2), third ventricle, fourth ventricle
- Cerebrospinal fluid: similar to blood plasma, more Na, Cl, H and less Ca and K
- Ependymal cells: involved in production of CSF
- Meninges: dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
Sleep and sleep wake cycles (REM, NREM).
- REM: skeletal muscles inhibited, dreaming occurs
- NREM: 4 stages; decreased blood pressure, respiration, heart rate, etc.
Cross-sectional anatomy and function of spinal cord.
-
Ascending and descending pathways.
- Ascending: spinocerebellar pathways, dorsal column-medial lemniscal pathways, spinothalamic pathways
- Descending: lateral and ventral corticospinal tract
Functions and locations of all the sensory receptor types (stimulus type, location type, and structural complexity). Which adapt, which do not?
- Stimulus type
- Mechano: touch, pressure, vibration, stretch
- Thermo: temperature
- Photo: light
- Chemo: smell, taste, changes in blood chemistry, etc.
- Nocio: pain, extreme schtuff
- Location type
- Intero:
- Extero
- Proprio
- Structure
- Simple
- Complex
What are the levels of neural integration in the somatosensory system, describe each.
- Receptor level
- Circuit level
- Perceptual level
Describe the forms of perceptual level processing (i.e. spatial discrimination is…)
- perceptual detection
- magnitude estimation
- spatial discrimination
- feature abstraction
- quality discrimination
- pattern recognition
Describe nerve regeneration in PNS vs. CNS.
- PNS: done by schwann cells
- CNS: usually don’t
Cranial nerves.
I Olfactory II Optic III Oculomotor IV Trochlear V Trigeminal VI Abducens VII Facial VIII Vestibulocochlear IX Glossopharyngeal X Vagus XI Accessory XII Hypoglossal
Levels of motor control (segmental, projection, precommand)
- Segmental
- Projection
- Precommand
Describe a reflex arc -stretch reflex, tendon reflex, flexor-withdrawal reflex, cross-extensor reflex.
- Receptor
- Sensory neuron
- Integration center
- Motor neuron
- Effector
Neural pathway (2-neuron motor unit)
- Pre-ganglionic neuron
- Autonomic ganglion
- Post-ganglionic neuron
- Effectors
Differences between autonomic and motor nervous systems and differences between sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. Figs. 14.2, 14.3 (powerpoint slides).
-
Sympathetic trunks and pathways (fig. 14.5, powerpoint).
-
Functions of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.
- Sympathetic: prepares body for activity, “fight or flight”
- Parasympathetic: maintanence functions, stores and conserves energy, “rest and digest”
Table 14.2 (powerpoint) cholinergic and adrenergic receptors, all receptor types, major locations, effect of binding. G-protein coupled receptors and 2nd messengers (e.g., cAMP) (powerpoint).
- Cholinergic
- Nicotinic
- Muscarinic
- Adrenergic
- B1, B2, B3, a1, a2
Table 14.3 (powerpoint), selected drugs –agonists and antagonists, clinical applications, mushroom poisoning (muscarine –muscarinic agonist).
-Ch. 14 Slide 30
Sympathetic and parasympathetic interactions.
- Dual innervation
- Dynamic antagonism
- Parasympathetic
- Sympathetic
- Cooperative effects
- Division dominance over the other
Where are the sensors for hearing, sight, smell, taste, and balance; cell types involved and functions.
- Hearing: internal ear
- Sight:
- Smell:
- Taste:
- Balance:
What part of the brain is responsible for conscious perception of sight, smell, taste, hearing.
-
Problems with refractions.
- Myopia: corrected by concave; focal point further back; diverges light
- Hyperopia: corrected by convex; focal point forward; converges light
Signal transduction for all senses, specific G-proteins, effector enzymes involved, 2nd messengers, specific ions channels, effects/signals.
- phototransduction: light –> retinal –> transducin –> PDE –> cGMP
- olfactory transduction: odorant –> receptor –> Golf –> AC –> CAMP
- taste transduction
