Final Exam Flashcards
electron
atomic particle with a negative charge
free radical
particle with an unnatural number of electrons
dimer
molecule composed of two monomers
rough ER (function)
synthesizes lipids
covalent bond
sharing of electrons between atoms
(CH2O)n
molecular formula of a carbohydrate
cilia
moves material over surface of a cell
mitochondrion
ATP producing organelle
catalyst
speeds up chemical reactions
amino acid
has a carboxyl, amino and r-group
solute
particles dissolved in a solvent
ribosome
binds to RNA and synthesizes protiens
isotonic
equal osmotic pressure on both sides
matrix
material between cells in a tissue
lysosome
vesicle containing digestive enzymes
how many electrons are found only in the second electron shell of an atom?
8
what tissue type has superficial cells connected to a basement membrane?
epithelial
which organelle is responsible for the synthesis of ATP molecules?
mitochondria
which atomic bond involves the transfer of electrons from one atom to another?
ionic bond
which molecule is organic: H2O CO2 NH3 CH4
CH4
what type of tissue has the ability to contract?
muscle
which concept is part of cell theory:
all cells came from pre-existing cells;
cells were derived from non-living molecules billions of years ago;
all cells possess a nucleus with genetic material;
all cells perform photosynthesis
all cells came from pre-existing cells
what is the function of cholesterol in the body?
main component of steroid hormones
what type of cell transport does NOT need ATP?
osmosis
which of the following substances is a carbohydrate: sucrose maltase keratin cholesterol
sucrose
what molecule is made of a large lipid and a small protein?
proteolipid
which of these organelles has a double phospholipid bilayer: rough ER nucleus golgi apparatus flagella
nucleus
which organelle is responsible for the synthesis of cellular carbohydrates?
golgi apparatus
which property of water allows humans to lose large quantities of heat through the evaporation of sweat?
thermal stability
what is the name of the organelle that organizes the shape of the cytoskeleton?
centrioles
True/False:
stratified squamous epithelial tissue is often used for secretion
False
True/False:
substances that dissolve in water are hydrophobic
false
True/False:
a cell that grows to twice its former volume has twice its former surface area
false
True/False:
a mole is a number equal to 5.02x10^23
false
True/False:
cytosol is the gelatinous fluid component of cytoplasm
true
True/False:
proteins are responsible for cellular movement
true
True/False:
RNA molecules are smaller than DNA molecules
true
True/False:
for a triglyceride to be saturated, all three fatty acids in it have to be saturated
true
True/False:
in osmosis, solute particles move from low to high concentations
false
True/False:
particles in a colloidal mixture are less than 1nm in size
false
carbon has an atomic number of 6, oxygen has number 8, and hydrogen has 1. calculate the weight of one mole of the triglyceride C55H101O6
ANSWER
what are the three types of subatomic particles and what charges do they have?
proton (+)
neutron (0)
electron (-)
draw an atom with an atomic number 12 and atomic weight 24. fill in the electron shells and label the number of protons and neutrons
SEE TEST
what is the matrix of a tissue and what is it composed of?
ANSWER
what is the Fluid Mosiac Theory of cell membranes?
ANSWER
Name and describe the shapes of cells found in epithelial issue
squamous: flat shaped, the nucleus is on top, similar shape to a fried egg
columnar: tall cells, nucleus is in the middle
cubodial: square/ cube shaped, the nucleus is in the middle
define the conformation of a protein
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define the denaturation of a protien
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what is the name of the structure that anchors cilia and flagella to a cell?
ANSWER
what are the 3 most common elements of the body?
hydrogen, carbon, oxygen
what are the 3 types of cartilage and how tough or elastic are they?
ANSWER
what is the difference between integral and peripheral proteins?
ANSWER
define hydrophilic
molecules that bind/ form bonds with water
define hydrophobic
molecules that do not bind/ form bonds with water
define amphiphillic
molecules that have the ability to bind/ form bonds with water or not
what are the 3 protein filaments that make up the cytoskeleton and which is the thickest?
ANSWER
what do the prefixes mono-, poly-, and oligo- mean?
mono: one
poly: many
oligo: few
why are saturated fats solid and unsaturated fats liquid at room temperature?
ANSWER
explain why a larger surface area-to-volume ratio is good for a cell and how that limits cell size.
ANSWER
how many amino acid types are found in human proteins an how many amino acids in a chain make up a protein?
there are 20 amino acid types that are found in human proteins. a combination of 50 amino acids make up a chain.
what are the differences between symports, antiports, and uniports?
symports: brings 2 things into the same direction
antiports: brings things into 2 different directions
uniports: allows things to pass through a membrane in one direction
what is a hydration sphere?
ANSWER
what is the difference between synthesis, decomposition, and exchange reactions?
synthesis: two or more smaller molecules are joined together to make a larger molecule (A+B –> AB)
decomposition: a larger molecule is broken up into at least 2 smaller molecules (AB –> A+B)
exchange: a molecule is broken down into at least 2 parts but the elements are also exchanged (AB+CD –> AC+BD)
Describe the cell actions during pinocytosis
ANSWER
Describe the cell actions during phagocytosis
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Describe the the cell actions during excocytosis
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list the 6 physical properties of water
solvency cohesion thermal stability adhesion polarity chemical reactivitiy
explain the differences in shape and function of microvilli, cilia, and flagella
ANSWER
list the 7 functions of proteins in the body
ANSWER
** Compare and contrast diffusion and osmosis. Describe how particles flow in each, way they move the way they do and under what conditions they both reach equilibrium.
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** describe the 4 levels of protein structure including what bonds are formed in each and why it makes those bonds.
ANSWER
Hematoma
blood clot
stratum corneum
epidermal layer of dead keratnized cells
endosteum
lines the medullary cavity of long bones
tendon
connects muscle to bone
exocrinw
gland that secretes through a duct
hair shaft
portion of the hair outside the epidermis
Haversian canal
carries blood vessels and nerves through compact bone
hyperplasia
tissue growth through cell multiplication
hypodermis
mostly composed of adipose tissue
synarthrosis
non moveable joint
gomphosis
tooth socket joint
multiaxial
allows movement in 3 planes
solubility product
necessary for calcium deposition
bursae
contains synovial fluid and cushions outside out joints
fibrosis
replacement of damaged cells with FCT
which bone shape do the vertebrae have?
irregular
which layer of the epidermis is only found in thick skin
stratum lucidum
what are the fibers of collagen that extend into bone matriz from the periosteum called?
perforating fibers
what type of tissue change involves sudden death due to loss of blood supply?
infarction
what type of movement can be performed with a ball-and-socket joint?
circumduction
which cell does not come from an osteogenic cell: osteoblasts osteoclasts fibroblasts chondroblasts
osteoblasts
which is not a pigment found in the integument? hemoglobin carotene melanin myoglobin
myogloblin
in bone tissue, what is the name of the chamber the osteocytes sit in?
lacunae
what is an example of a cartilaginous joint?
between vertebral bodies
where will you find the zone of hypertrophy?
in the metaphysis
which of the following is not one of the formed elements of blood adipocytes erythrocytes leukocytes platlets
adipocytes
which gland type produces earwax?
cercuminous
which hormone reduces blood calcium by stimulating osteoblasts?
calcitonin
which is not a feature of a synovial joint: synarthrosis meniscus joint capsule synovial fluid
synarthrosis
what is the smooth muscle bundle that causes hairs to stand on end?
arrector pili
True/False:
skin and bones are constantly growing new tissue
true
True/False:
the periostieum of a bone and the tendon of a muscle are made of the same tissue
true
True/False:
in thin skin, there are no sweat glands
false
True/False:
eumelanin produces red/ blond hair
false
True/False: third class levers have a high mechanical advantage
false
True/False:
inversion and eversion are motions of the hands
false
True/False:
all synovial joints are diarthroses
false
True/False:
lanugo hair is found on fetuses
true
True/False:
yellow marrow is only found in the epiphyses of bones
false
True/False:
all diarthrosis are synovial joints
true
put the following in chronological order: osteoblast, spongy bone, osteogenic cell, osteoid tissue, compact bone.
osteogenic cell osteoblast osteoid tissue spongy bone compact bone
Draw a hair in lateral view and in cross section and label the following parts: shaft, root, bulb, and then medulla, cortex and cuticle
SEE DRAWING
define abduction
movement away from the midline of the body
define adduction
movement towards the midline of the body
define flexion
bending motion that decreases the angle
define extension
extending motion that increases the angle
name the 3 stages of hair growth and what occurs in each stage
anagen: new hair follicle begins to grow
catagen: old hair follicle dies and new follicle grows within the same spot
telegen: resting stage. old hair is pushed out by new hair
name the 4 cutaneous glands and what they secrete
merocrine- sweat
- apocrine- sweat
- sebaceous- sebum
- ceruminous- earwax
in what organs are calcitriol, calcitonin, and parathyroid hormones made?
ANSWER
name the three cell types found in the stratum basale of the epidermis and what their functions are.
ANSWER
what are the three types of cartilage?
hyaline
fibrocartilage
elastic cartilage
what are the three types of muscle tissue?
skeletal muscle tissue
cardiac muscle tissue
smooth muscle tissue
what are the organic and inorganic components of bone matrix?
organic: 1/3, protein and collagen
inorganic: 2/3, hydroxipate, calcium, phosphate and sodium
what is the difference between amphiarthroses, diarthroses, and synarthrosis?
amphiarthroses: some movement
diarthroses: broad movement
synarthrosis: no movement (little, if any)
describe or draw a first class lever
EFR, RFE
the fulcrum is in the middle
describe or draw a second class lever
FRE, ERF
the resistance is in the middle
describe or draw a third class lever
REF, FER
the effort is in the middle
what is the difference between sereous, mucous and cytogenic glands?
ANSWER
what is the difference between appositional and interstitial growth?
appositional: the cells are near the surface and grow towards the surface
interstitial growth: cells are in the middle and grow in both directions (ex. scar tissue)
name the pairs of bones that form a condyloid joint
ANSWER
name the pairs of bones that form a hinge joint
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name the pairs of bones that form a pivot joint
ANSWER
define pronation
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define supination
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define opposition
ANSWER
define reposition
ANSWER
what doe the prefixes chondro-, osteo-, and fibro- refer to?
chondro- cartilage
osteo- bone
fibro- fibers
what is the difference between endocrine, exocrine, holocrine, and merocrine glands?
ANSWER
draw and label the following parts of an osteon: haversian canal, lamellae, osteocytes, canaliculi
SEE DRAWING
where are the primary and secondary centers found?
ANSWER
define atrophy
cell/ tissue size shrinks
define apoptosis
pre-programmed cell death
define necrosis
early cell death
list the 6 functions of the skeletal system
acid/ base balance electrolyte balance support movement protection form trauma blood formation
list the 6 functions of the integumentary system
ANSWER
list in order of depth all the strata and layers of tissue in the epidermis and dermis
ANSWER
list the 3 types of fibrous joints, the 2 types of cartilaginous joints, and the 6 types of synovial joints
Fibrous Joints: gomphosis, suture, and syndesmoses
Cartilaginous Joints: symphysis and Synchondrosis
Synovial Joints: ball & socket, condylar, saddle, plane, hinge, pivot
** name all the zones of the metaphysis and describe in detail what is happening in each of the zones until osteons are formed
ANSWER
** describe in detail how a fractured bone is repaired. include the types of tissue formed, what cells formed them, and in what order.
ANSWER
What are the anatomical structures of the spinal cord and spinal nerves?
ANSWER
What are the connective tissues associated with nervous tissue?
ANSWER
How many spinal nerve pairs are there?
31
What are the 5 plexuses?
ANSWER
What are the proximal branches of the spinal nerve?
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What are the distal branches of the spinal nerve?
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What are the functions of all the branches of the spinal nerves?
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What is a dermatome?
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What are the characteristics of a reflex?
ANSWER
Describe a reflex arc.
ANSWER
What types of neurons are found in the roots of spinal nerves?
ANSWER
What is the difference between a funiculus and a fasciculus?
ANSWER
What is the difference between ascending and descending tracts?
ANSWER
What is the difference between ipsilateral and contralateral tracts?
ANSWER
What are the anatomical structures of the brain? (Check the lab list of structures)
ANSWER
What are the three meninges?
ANSWER
Which is most superficial and deepest?
ANSWER
What are the ventricles?
ANSWER
What are the choroid plexuses?
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What are the 3 functions of cerebrospinal fluid?
ANSWER
How is cerebrospinal fluid made?
ANSWER
Why is it important to keep whole blood from touching the CNS?
ANSWER
What is the difference between the blood-brain barrier and the blood-CSF barrier?
ANSWER
What are the structures that make up the hindbrain?
ANSWER
what are the structures that make up the midbrain?
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what are the structures that make up the forebrain?
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What are four functions of each structure in the hindbrain, midbrain and forebrain?
ANSWER
What are the 5 functions of the reticular formation?
ANSWER
What are the 7 functions of the hypothalamus?
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What are the 5 lobes of the cerebrum?
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What are their general functions of each lobe of the cerebrum?
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What are the 3 areas of cerebral gray matter?
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What are the 3 tract types of cerebral white matter?
ANSWER
What limbic system nuclei are centers of emotion and memory?
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What are the 8 higher brain functions?
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What is the difference between Wernicke’s area and Broca’s area?
ANSWER
How are primary sensory and association areas related to one another?
ANSWER
How are the motor association and primary motor areas of the frontal lobe related to one another?
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What are the differences between sensory and motor divisions of the PNS?
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What are the differences between somatic and visceral divisions of the PNS?
ANSWER
Which of these divisions are part of the autonomic nervous system:
somatic, visceral, sensory, motor?
ANSWER
How many neurons are needed to reach effectors from the CNS in a somatic pathway versus an autonomic pathway?
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What are the differences between the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in terms of: Pre-ganglionic and post-ganglionic fiber lengths?
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What are the differences between the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in terms of: Names and locations of the ganglia?
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What are the differences between the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in terms of: Neurotransmitters used?
ANSWER
What are the differences between the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in terms of: Origin of the path from the CNS?
ANSWER
What are the differences between the anatomy of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions in terms of: Neuronal divergence?
ANSWER
What are the three routes that sympathetic paths can follow and where do the post-ganglionic fibers run for each route?
ANSWER
How could blood vessel width be regulated using only sympathetic enervation?
ANSWER
What are the characteristics of receptors?
answer
What are the 4 types of info sent by receptors?
modality (type), location (which), intensity (rate), duration (way)
What is the difference between phasic and tonic receptors?
phasic: adapt quickly after initial burst of sensation
tonic: adapt slowly and send continual impulses
What are the 5 modalities of receptors?
chemoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nocieptors, mechanorecptors, photoreceptors
what are interoceptors
detect stimuli in the internal organs
what are proprioceptors
dectect stimuli in muscles, tendons and joints
what are exteroceptors
dectect stimuli external to the body
What is the difference between general and special senses?
general senses are receptors widely distributed in the skin, muscles, tendons, joints and viscera
special senses…
What are the 3 unencapsulated nerve endings in the skin?
free nerve endings, tactile (merkel) discs, hair receptors
What are the encapsulated nerve endings in deeper tissues?
tactile (corpuscles)
krause end bulbs
lammellated corpuscles
ruffini corpuscles
What is the projection pathway for touch receptors?
nueron to spinal cord
into the thalamus
into the cortex
What are nociceptors?
pain receptors
What are the two types of pain?
fast and slow
What is substance P?
ANSWER
What is the projection pathway for pain?
skin to spinal cord
spinal cord to thalamus and reticular formation
thalamus to parietal lobe
reticular formation to hypothalamus and limbic system
What is spinal gating?
ANSWER
What are endogenous opioids?
ANSWER
What is chemoreception?
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What is gustation?
ANSWER
What is olfaction?
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What is the difference between taste buds and lingual papillae?
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What are the shapes of the 4 lingual papillae?
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Where are most taste buds found?
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What are the 5 accepted taste sensations?
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What is the projection pathway of taste sensation?
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What 3 cranial nerves sense taste?
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How many taste buds are there?
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How many olfactory cells?
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How long do taste cells and olfactory cells live and why?
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How many smells can a person differentiate on average?
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What is the projection pathway of olfaction?
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What is the difference between pitch and loudness?
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how is pitch measured
ANSWER
how is loudness measured
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What are the three sections of the ear?
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What are the anatomical structures in each section of the ear?
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What are the ossicles?
ANSWER
What are the names of the ossicles?
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What is the difference between perilymph and endolymph?
ANSWER
What is the difference between the cochlea and the vestibule?
ANSWER
What is the pathway that sound vibrations follow through the entire ear?
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How is sound transduced into nerve impulses?
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What is the projection pathway of sound?
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What is the difference between static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium?
ANSWER
What is the difference between linear and angular acceleration?
ANSWER
what organs sense linear acceleration
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what organs sense angular acceleration
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What is the difference between the maculae and the cristae?
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What are otoliths?
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What is the projection pathway of balance?
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What are the accessory structures of vision?
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what are the functions of the accessory functions of the structures of vision
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How many muscles move the eyeball in the socket?
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How many cranial nerves?
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What are the three tunics of the eye?
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What are the structures of the optical apparatus?
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What are the structures of the neural apparatus?
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What are the three means of improving focus on nearby objects?
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How do the ciliary bodies, suspensory ligaments and lens work together to focus vision?
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What are the three layers of cells in the retina?
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What is the difference between rods and cones in function and neural connection?
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What parts of the retina have higher concentrations of rods and/or cones?
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What is the projection pathway of vision?
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action potential
thin filament in a sarcomere
fusiform
spindle like muscle shape
trigger zone
dominated by voltage gated ion channels
actin
thin filament in a sarcomere
lactic acid
byproduct of anaerobic fermenations
IPSP
makes a neuron less likely to fire
endoneurium
sheath surrounding each axon in the CNS
motor unit
motor neuron and its neuron fibers
reverberating
neuronal circuit that stimulates itself
tetanus
smooth prolonged contraction of muscle
synapse
junction of a neuron and target cell
treppe
muscle cells go to full relaxation but next twitch has higher tension
isometric
change in tension, no change in length
ganglion
bundle of muscle or neuron fibers
calcium
ion pumped outside of smooth muscle
Which of the following is a function of the muscular system:
a. Integration.
b. Heat production.
c. Conduction.
d. Electrolyte balance.
heat production
Which muscle action opposes the prime mover?
antagonist
Which neurotransmitter type is made of modified amino acids?
monoamines
Which of the following is a cuff of connective tissue that holds tendons in place?
a. Aponeurosis.
b. Retinaculum.
c. Insertion.
d. Origin.
retinaculum
What type of conduction is permitted by myelinated neurons?
saltatory
Which type of conduction brings impulses from the body to the CNS?
sensory
Which type of neuroglial cell creates a supportive framework in the CNS?
astrocytes
Which of the following is NOT one of the meninges?
a. Fara mater.
b. Arachnoid mater.
c. Pia mater.
d. Dura mater.
fara matter
What is a full cycle of contraction and relaxation of a muscle?
muscle twitch
What type of neuron has only one dendrite and one axon attached to the soma?
bipolar
Which characteristic is common to both nervous tissue and muscular tissue?
a. Contractility.
b. Elasticity.
c. Excitability.
d. Extensibility.
excitability
Which method of ATP production does not use oxygen but does use glucose?
anaerobic fermenation
What is the name of the contractile unit of a muscle cell?
sarcomere
Which part of the muscle cell contains ligand-gated ion channels?
motor end plate
Which muscle shape has the weakest of contraction strength?
circular
True/ False: Qualitative encoding is based on how many neurons fire and how
often they fire.
false
True/ False: Ependymal cells filter blood to make cerebrospinal fluid.
true
True/ False: Sodium is kept at a high concentration inside neuron membranes.
false
True/ False: The time during which a cell cannot be stimulated again is the
latent period.
false
True/ False: Interneurons communicate between sensory and motor neurons.
true
True/ False: Myosin heads bind to actin active sites when exposed.
true
True/ False: Superficial fascia lies between muscle surface and skin.
true
True/ False: Myofibrils are made up of many sarcomeres.
true
True/ False: Actin filaments are connected to dense bodies in smooth muscle.
true
True/ False: Sodium gates are slow to open compared to potassium gates.
false
What are all the benefits and disadvantages to aerobic respiration and anaerobic fermentation?
aerobic: creates NO lactic acid, muscles do not fatigue as quickly
anaerobic: makes lactic acid, muscles fatigue quickly
What are the three characteristics of nervous tissue AND the five characteristics of muscle tissue?
Nervous: excitability, conductivity, secretion
Name three of the six neuroglial cell types, and give one function of each.
Microglia- macrophages
Epidymal- fitters
Oligendrocytes- makes myelin sheath
astrocytes- form supportive framework for nervous tissue
satellite- provide electrical insulation around soma
schwann- assist in regeneration
What is the difference between a neuron, a nerve and a ganglion?
neuron: nerve cel
nerve: bundle of nerve fibers
ganglion: knot like swelling in a nerve
List three ways to increase the strength of a muscle twitch and/or prevent twitch weakness.
ANSWER
Explain how smooth muscle cells are stimulated in a single-unit format.
ANSWER
What is the difference between the CNS and the PNS and what do those acronyms stand for?
CNS: central nervous system
- contains the brain and spinal cord
PNS: peripheral nervous system
- contains everything EXCEPT the brain and spinal cord
What cells create the myelin sheath in the CNS and PNS and what are the two functions of the sheath?
ANSWER
What is the difference in location between endomysium, perimysium and epimysium?
endomysium: deepest
perimysium: middle
epimysium: closest to the surface
What are the three ways to remove neurotransmitters from a synaptic cleft?
ANSWER
What is the difference between the somatic and visceral divisions of the PNS?
answer
What is the function of the troponin/tropomyosin complex?
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Draw a multipolar neuron and label the dendrite, soma, axon, terminal arborization, and synaptic knobs.
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Explain the action of an IPSP. (Not just what it is, but how one is formed.)
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Name three things that return a muscle cell to its resting size during relaxation.
antagonistic muscles
recoil of elastic components
titin
List the physical differences between a smooth muscle cell and a skeletal muscle cell.
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Explain why the brain is perfused with CSF and not blood.
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What is the difference between qualitative and quantitative neural coding?
quantitative: based on how many neurons fire
qualitative: based on what kind of neurons fire
What is the difference between temporal summation and spatial summation?
Temporal: the same nerve/ neuron fires repeatedly until the threshold is met
spatial: multiple nerves/ neurons fire to meet the threshold
Draw a simple sarcomere and label the actin, myosin, z-disc, titin, A-band, and I-band.
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Describe the process of regeneration of a severed axon in the PNS.
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List the differences in form and function of local and action potentials.
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List the differences in anatomy and function between slow and fast twitch fibers.
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List the physiological causes of fatigue in muscle cells
accumulation of K+ in the ECF
ADP/ Pi accumulation
fuel depletion
electrolyte loss
**Describe in detail ONE of the following processes: Excitation, excitation-contraction coupling, contraction, relaxation.
excitation:
- nerve signal to synaptic knob
- voltage gated ion channels open
- calcium ions enter knob and stimulate excytosis
- ACh is released
- ACh diffuses and binds to receptors
- ligand gated ion channel
- 2 ACh molecules bind to receptor
- channel opens: Na+ flows IN; K+ flows OUT
**Describe the transmission of an action potential down an axon in detail, starting from the trigger zone. Describe the motion of sodium and potassium and the change in membrane voltage during the action potential, plus its effects on the next section of the axolemma.
ANSWER
