Exam 2 Flashcards
review for exam #2
What are the functions of connective tissue?
Binding of organs support (bones of the body) physical protection (trauma) immune protection movement storage heat production transport
What is the difference between FCT and the other connective tissues (cartilage, bone, blood)?
FCT has more fibers than ground substance within the matrix
What are the cell types found in FCT? What are the fiber types?
fibroblasts macrophages leukocytes plasma mast cells adipocytes
What are the fiber types found in FCT?
collagenous
reticular
elastic
What is the most common protein fiber in the body?
collagen
What is the ground substance in FCT?
stuff that occupies the space between cells and fibers.
Gelatinous consistency, made of proteoglycans and glycoprotiens
What is the difference between loose and dense FCT?
in loose FCT much of the space is taken up by ground substance. (in dense, more fiber)
What are the three types of loose FCT?
collagenous
reticular
elastic
What are the two types of dense FCT?
regular and irregular
define fibroblasts
a connective tissue cell that produces collagen fibers and ground substance.
(the only type of cell in tendons and ligaments)
define chondroblasts
cell that grows cartilage
define osteoblasts
bone forming cell that arises from an osteogenic cell, deposits bone matrix and eventually becomes an ostetocyte
What is the difference between cartilage and the other types of connective tissue?
cartilage has little to no blood vessels and has a flexible rubbery matrix
what are the three types of cartilage?
hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage
Which is strongest type of cartilage?
Fibrocartilage
which type of cartilage is the most elastic?
elastic
What are the two types of bone?
spongy & compact
Where will you find spongy bone?
in the heads of long bones
and the middle layer of flat bones
What is the function of a Haversian canal?
to allow blood vessels and nerves to travel through the bone
What are lamellae?
spaces where cells can develop
What is an osteon?
a central canal and its surrounding lamellae
What is an osteocyte?
mature bone cell
How does an osteocyte get nutrients if it is entrapped in solid calcium crystal matrix?
cannaliculi
What is the periosteum?
layer of FCT covering the surface of a bone
What are the formed elements of blood?
(make up blood: plasma, cells, and cell fragments)
erythrocytes- RBC
Leukocytes- WBC
platlets
What is the ground substance of blood?
plasma
What is the three parts of a neuron? What are their functions?
soma- cell body, contains the nucleus
dendrites- short, branched processes extending from the soma to receive signals from other cells
axon- nerve fiber, transmits signals
What are neuroglia?
glial cells
What are the different functions of neuroglia and neurons?
Neuroglia: protect and assist neurons - (housekeeping for neurons) provide support, chemical and immune protection
Neurons: receive and transmit information
What are the three types of muscle cells?
skeletal, cardiac, smooth
Where will you find each type of muscle cell?
Skeletal: attached to bones
Cardiac: heart
Smooth: hollow parts of the body (stomach, blood vessels)
How is each type of muscle cell shaped?
skeletal: long, striated, multiple nuclei
cardiac: “Y” shaped, intercalated discs
smooth: 1 nuclei, squamous shaped
What are the three types of intercellular junctions?
Tight, Desmosome, Gap
What is an intercalated disc?
gap junctions and desmosomes that join two cardiac muscle cells end to end
What is a gland?
a cell or organ that secretes substances for use somewhere else or for elimination
What are the two types of glands based on destination of secretions?
Endocrine gland & Exocrine Gland
What are the three types of secreted material?
sereous, mucous, cytogenic
What are the two methods of secretion?
Merocrine, holocrine
What is the difference between secretion and excretion?
secretion: useful to the body
excretion: waste product, not useful
What are membranes?
layer of tissue used to line an organ or cover something
What is the difference between cutaneous, mucous and serous membranes?
Cutaneous: skin (outside)
Mucous: internal, lines passageways that open to the exterior
Serous: internal. lines the insides of some body cavitites
What is the difference between hypertrophy and hyperplasia?
Hypertrophy: enlargement of preexisting cells
Hyperplasia: cell growth through multiplication
How are hypertrophy and hyperplasia similar?
both are an enlargement of cells
one is by numbers, the other by size
What is the difference between atrophy, necrosis and apoptosis?
Atrophy: shrinkage in tissue because of cell size or number
Necrosis: premature, pathological death of a tissue due to trauma, toxins, or infection
apoptosis: programmed cell death
How are atrophy, necrosis and apoptosis similar?
the cell is becoming smaller
What is the difference between regeneration and fibrosis?
regeneration is the making of the same type of cell
fibrosis is the replacement of cells with collagen
How are regeneration and fibrosis similar?
cells die
What are the parts of the integumentary system?
the skin, hair, nails, and glands
What are the functions of skin?
resistance to trauma and infection other barrier functions Vitamin D synthesis sensation thermo-regualtion nonverbal communication
What is the difference between skin types? (Thick/Thin)
thick skin covers the palms, soles of feet, surfaces of fingers and toes. contains sweat glands
thin skin covers the rest of the body, contains hair follicles
What are the 2 layers of the skin?
epidermis
dermis
What is the hypodermis?
underlies the dermis but isn’t a true layer of the skin
SKIN:
What occurs in those layers and what tissues will you find there?
ANSWER
What are the 5 strata of the epidermis?
stratum basale stratum spinosum stratum granulosum stratum lucidum strartum corneum
What cells will you find in the strata of the epidermis?
stem, melanocytes, tactile (merkal) cells, dendritic
What pigments color the skin and hair?
melanin, carotene, hemoglobin
What is horripilation?
goosebumps
How do hair and nails grow similar to skin?
older cells/ strands of hair are pushed out by newer cells/ strands
How does follicle shape affect hair growth?
the shape of the follicle determines what kind of hair you will have (wavy, curly, straight, etc.)
What are the three types of hair on humans?
Lanugo
Vellus
Terminal
What are the three sections of a hair?
Bulb
Root
Shaft
What are the three stages of hair growth and what happens in each?
anagen, catagen, telegen
anagen: stem cells from the bulge in the follicle multiply and travel downward, pushing the dermal papilla deeper into the skin and forming the epithelial root sheath.
catagen: mitosis in the hair matrix ceases and sheath cells below the bulge die. The hair is now known as a club hair.
telegen: the papilla reaches the bulge, the hair goes into a resting period
What cells are nails made of?
dead cells filled with keratin fibers
What are the functions of nails?
tools, manipulation, protect from impact
What are the sections of a nail?
Free edge, nail body, nail groove, nail fold, lunule, cuticle
Where will you find the various cutaneous gland types?
Apocrine: groin, anal region, armpit, areola
merocrine: palms, soles, forehead
What is produced in apocrine and merocrine sudoriferous glands?
sweat
apocrine: hair
What is produced in ceruminous, sebaceous, and mammary glands?
ceruminous: earwax
sebaceous: sebum (oily secretion)
mammary glands: milk
What are the 7 functions of the skeletal system?
support protection movement electrolyte balance acid-base balance blood formation
What are the 4 bone shapes?
Long, Short, Flat, Irregular
What is the difference between spongy and compact bone?
spongy bone has visible spaces within it, compact bone does not
Where is spongy bone found?
at the heads of bones
Where is compact bone found?
outer shell of bones (makes medullary category)
What are the structures in an osteon?
osteocyte, cannilicucli, lamellae
What is the difference between epiphyses and diaphyses?
epiphyses: heads of the bones (ends)
diaphyses: the shaft of the bone (middle part in between epiphyses
What is the medullary cavity?
cavity/ space that contains the bone marrow
What are nutrient foramina?
tiny wholes in the bones that allow blood vessels to pass through
What is the difference between periosteum and endosteum?
periosteum is the layer that externally covers a bone. the endosteum is inside the bone and lines the internal marrow cavity.
What are perforating fibers?
collagen fibers that are continuous with the tnedons that bind muscle to bone and extend & penetrate into the bone matrix
Why is the periosteum so important for bone growth?
it contains an inner osteogenetic layer that contains bone forming cells
What are osteogenic cells, osteoblasts, osteocytes, and osteoclasts?
types of bone cells
Function of osteogenic cells
stem cells that that give rise to most other bone cells
Function of osteoblasts
creates bone
Function of Osteocytes
reabsorb or deposit bone matrix
Function of Osteoclasts
dissolves bone
What are the different marrow types and where are they found?
red & yellow
inside the marrow cavity of long bones, paces in spongy bone and larger central canals
How is bone made during intramembranous ossification? ****
ANSWER
How is bone made during Endochondral ossification? ****
ANSWER
What is metaphysis and what happens in its 5 zones?
Metaphysis: the transition of cartilage to bone at each end of the primary marrow category
Zone of reserve Cartilage: consists of hyaline cartilage that hasn’t shown signs of transforming
Zone of cell proliferation: chondrocytes multiply and arrange into longitudinal columns of flattened lacunar
Zone of cell hypertrophy: chondrocytes cease division and enlarge
Zone of calcification: minerals are deposited in the matrix between the columns of lacunae and calcify the cartilage
Zone of bone deposition: the walls of the lacunae break down and chondrocytes die. blood vessels invade, osteoblasts line up
What is the difference between appositional and interstitial growth?
appositional: cells are near the surface and grow towards it
interstitial growth: cells are in the middle and grow outwards
What minerals make up bone matrix?
1/3 organic and 2/3 inorganic matter
organic: collagen and protein-carbohydrate complexes
inorganic: hydroxyapatite, calcium carbonate, lesser amounts of magnesium, sodium, potassium, fluoride, sulfate, carbonate, and hydroxide ions
What is a calculus?
ANSWER
What are the effects of hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia?
hypocalcemia: calcium deficiency
hypercalcemia: blood calcium excess
What substances are secreted by osteoclasts?
blood stem cells, hydrogen ions
What are the hormones involved in bone remodeling?
calcitriol, calcitonin, PTH
Where are the hormones involved in bone remodeling produced?
ANSWER
What are the functions of these the hormones involved in bone remodeling? What mechanisms do they initiate?
ANSWER
What are the steps in bone fracture repair?
- clot blood
- add stronger fibers
- add cartilage
- surround cartilage with bone shell
- covert cartilage to bone shell
- remodel back to original bone
What is the difference between synarthroses, amphiarthroses and diarthroses?
the amount of movement
synarthroses- little to no movement
amphiarthrose- some movement
diarthroses- a lot of movement
What is the difference between fibrous joints, cartilaginous joints and synovial joints?
ANSWER
What is the difference between sutures, gomphoses and ligaments?
sutures: immovable or slightly moveable fibrous joints that bind the bones of the skull
gomphoses: the attachment of teeth to the jaw
ligaments: bing bonds together
What is the difference between synchondroses and symphyses?
synchondroses: joint in which the bones are connected by hyaline cartilage
symphyses: two bones that are joined by fibrocartilage
What are the features of a synovial joint?
a point where 2 bones are separated by a narrow, encapsulated space filled with lubircating synovial fluid
What are the tissues that make up the joint capsule?
fibrous?
What is synovial fluid?
a lubricant
Where is synovial fluid made?
synovial joint cavity and bursae
What is the function of synovial fluid?
nourishes the articular cartilages, removes their wastes and makes synovial joint movements friction free.
What is a meniscus?
a cartilage extended inward to the knee joint
What is a bursa?
a fibrous sac filled with synovial fluid located between adjacent muscles where a tendon passes over a bone or between bone and skin
Where are the meniscus and bursa found?
in the knee
What are the 6 synovial joint shapes based on movement?
ball & socket condylar saddle plane (gliding) hinge pivot
How many planes can each of the 6 synovial joints move in?
ball & socket: 2+ condylar: 2 saddle: 2 plane (gliding): 2 hinge: 1 pivot: 1
What are the 3 lever types?
1st, 2nd, and 3rd class
List an example of each type of lever in the body
1st: atlanto-occipital joint of the neck
2nd: depressing the mandible
3rd: musculoskeletal
which type of lever is most common?
3rd class
What are the ligaments found in the knee joint?
ACL, MCL, PCL, LCL
What knee bone do the quadriceps attach to?
Patella (kneecap)
where would you find compact bone?
the external surfaces of all bones
intramembraneous
within the membrane
endochondral
made within the cartilage
synarthroses
little to no movement
amphiarthroses
limited movement
diarthroses
broad movement
Example of a ball & socket joint
shoulder or hip
Example of a condylar joint
radiocarpal joint of the wrist
Example of a saddle joint
trapeziometacarpal joint at the base of the thumb
Example of a plane/ gliding joint
between the carpal and tarsal bones of the wrist and ankle
Example of a hinge joint
elbow, knee
Example of a pivot joint
radioulnar joint at the elbow
Define: Flexion
movement that decrease a joint angle usually in the sagittal plane
Facts about flexion
common at hinge joints
in ball & socket joints: means to raise the limb in front of you
Extension
straightens a joint an generally returns a body part to the zero position
hyperextension
further extension of a joint beyond the zero position
Range of Motion (3 parts)
shape of bone
muscle tone
tightness of tendon
abduction
the movement of a body part in the frontal plane away from the midline of the body
Adduction
movement in the frontal plane back to the midline
elevation
movement that raises a body part vertically in the frontal plant
depression
lowers a body part in the same plane
protraction
anterior movement of a body part in the transverse plane
retraction
posterior movement
circumduction
one end of the appendage remains stationary while the other end makes a circular motion
rotation (medial or lateral)
describes a movement in which a bone turns on its long axis
supination
the movement that the palm to fave anteriorly or upward
pronation
turns the palm posteriorly or downward
Flexion in the neck
forward bending movements
hyerexstension in the neck
looking up or bending backwards
in biting, the mandible is
protracted
after biting the mandible is
retracted
chewing involves a grinding action with a side to side movement called
lateral excursion and medial excursion
Ulnar flexion
tilting of the hand towards the the pinky
radial flexion
tilting of the hand towards the thumb
thumb =
opposition
dorsiflexion
movement that elevates the toes by pulling the foot upwards
plantar flexion
movement of the foot so the toes point downward
inversion
movement that tips the soles medially, somewhat facing each other
eversion
tips the soles laterally, facing away from each other
First Class Levers
RFE or EFR
where is the fulcrum in a first class lever
in the middle
Second Class lever
ERF or FRE
in a second class lever what is in the middle
the resistance
third class lever
REF or FER
in a third class lever, what is in the middle
the effort
ROM is determined by:
structure of the articular surfaces, strength and toughness of ligaments and joint capsules, and action of the muscles and tendons
muscle tone
state of tension in resting muscles
