Final exam Flashcards
Know topics 1-8
1
Q
Parts of a Neuron
A
- Dendrites 2. Axon Hillock 3. Axon 4. Synapse
2
Q
Function of Dendrite
A
Input
3
Q
Function of Axon Hillcock
A
Integrative
4
Q
Function of Axon
A
Conductive
5
Q
Function of Synapse
A
Output
6
Q
The type of neuron connection we focus on
A
Axodendritic Synapse (Synapses on dendrites)
7
Q
What is the synaptic cleft
A
Gap between synapse between two neurons
8
Q
What do cell membranes do?
A
Prevent flow of ions, proteins, and other water soluble molecules
9
Q
What is a membranes resting potential
A
- 70 mV
10
Q
Two main types of conduits across the membrane
A
Ion channels and Ion pumps
11
Q
Ion channel characteristics
A
Passive transport, selective permeability, and can be gated. (It allows Na+, K+, Ca2+, Cl-)
12
Q
Ion pump characteristics
A
Active transport, and requires energy (ATP) (it allows Na+, K+, Ca2+)
13
Q
What forces push ions through channels
A
Electrical gradient (in) and Concentration gradient (out)
14
Q
What happens when gradients are equally opposite
A
Electrochemical equilibrium
15
Q
According to the Nernst Equation what does not help determine equilibrium
A
The Permeability of other ions
16
Q
Why is there a diffusional force for potassium ions from inside to outside the cell membrane?
A
Due to greater concentration of potassium ions inside the membrane compared to the outside
17
Q
What voltage dependent process initiates an action potential
A
Voltage-gated sodium channel open, letting more sodium ions into the neuron
18
Q
Why do action potentials only go one way down an axon
A
Refractoriness: after a action potential that piece of membrane has a cooldown period before it can go again
19
Q
What happens when Hyperpolarization occurs
A
An inhibitory Postsynaptic Potential (IPSPs)
20
Q
What happens when Depolarization occurs
A
Excitatory Postsynaptic Potential (EPSPs)
21
Q
What happens when a Action potential occurs (Spike)
A
Rapid depolarization and repolarization
22
Q
What threshold does a Action potential occurs
A
-55 mV
23
Q
What does All or non mean
A
an action either occurs to a full 100 mV or it does not occur, it lasts 1 ms, and has a refractory period of 5 ms
24
Q
Characteristics of Electronic conduction
A
- Passive
- Relatively fast
- Exponentially attenuating
- Travels short distances
25
Characteristics of self-regenerating propagation
1. Active
2. Relatively slow
3. Self-regenerating
4. Travels long distances
26
What are two components of Saltatory conduction
Nodes of Ranvier and Myelinated sections
27
What are the 3 parts of neural coding
1. Rate 2. Duration 3. Timing
28
What do Postsynaptic Potentials depend on
Neurotransmitters (from the presynaptic cell)
Receptors (on the postsynaptic cell)
29
What CNS neurotransmitter is the primary excitatory neurotransmitter
Glutamate
30
What Major CNS neurotransmitter is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter
GABA
31
What are some other Major CNS neurotransmitters
Acetylcholine, Dopamine, Serotonin, Noradrenaline, Histamine
32
Neurotransmitter Biochemical classifications
1. Amino acids (Glutamate, GABA)
2. Monoamines (Dopamine, Norepinephrine, Histamine, Serotonin)
3. Peptides (Oxytocin, Endorphin, Somatostatin)
4. Gases (Nitric oxide, Carbon monoxide)
5. other (Acetylcholine)
33
Topic 2 Part 1 Foundation: Brain
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34
What are Glia
Non-neuronal cells in the nervous system
35
What are Glia functions
1. Support neurons physically
2. Supply neurons with nutrients and oxygen
3. Insulate neurons from eachother
4. Protect neurons from pathogens and clean out dead neurons
5. Modulate and regulate neural activity
36
How many Glia celss are there
100 BILLION (1/2 OF CNS volume)
37
Function of Astrocytes (CNS) and Satellite Cells (PNS)
1. support neurons structure
2. Help create blood brain barrier
3. Provide nutrients
4. Modulate neural activity through reuptake in neurotransmitters and regulates ion concertation
38
Function of Oligodendrocytes (CNS) and Schwann cells (PNS)
Provide the myeline for axons
39
Ependymal cells (CNS)
Help produce and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
40
Microglia (CNS)
Macrophages that devour and digest cellular debris
41
What are the body centric direction terminology
1. Dorsal= back
2. Ventral=belly
3. Rostral= nose
4. Caudal= tail
42
Space centric direction terminology
1. Superior=above
2. Inferior=below
3. Anterior= before (in front)
4. Inferior=after (behind)
43
Side to side direction terminology, same or different side terminology
1. Ipsilateral
2. Contralateral
1. Same side
2. Opposite side
44
One or both
1. Unilateral
2. Bilateral
1. one side
2. both sides
45
Left or right
left or right lateralized
46
near or far
Proximal= near
Distal= far
47
What are the 2 divisions of the PNS
Somatic ( Voluntary control)
Autonomic (regulation of involuntary functions eg organs)
48
Autonomous nervous system
Autonomic motor neuron steps
1. Brain stem/ Spinal cord
2. Sympathetic and parasympathetic ganglia cells
3. Effector cells (Smooth muscle cells, gland cells, Cardiac muscle cells)
49
Why do sympathetic and parasympathetic functions work against each other
To achieve homeostasis
50
Sympathetic functions
- Fight or flight
- quick response
- increase blood flow to skeletal muscle
- increased heart rate
inhibits digestion
- pupils dilate
51
Parasympathetic
- Rest and digest
- increase blood flow to gut
- Facilitates digestion
- Constricts pupils for near vision
52
CNS Protection
Meninges: covering
Cerebrospinal fluid (CFS): cushioning
Ventricles: fluid filled spaces
53
3 Layers of Meninges
1. Dura Mater
2. Arachnoid mater
3. Pia Mater
54
Ventricles (4)
Left lateral
right lateral
third
fourth
55
Cerebrospinal Fluid functions
Buancy and protection
Chemical stability
clearing of waste
56
Types of matter in spinal cord and what they are (2)
White Matter: Myelinated axons
Grey Matter: Cell bodies of neurons
57
Afferents
Signals coming in from the peripheral come in through the dorsal side (Senses)
58
Efferent
Signals coming out of the Ventral side are sent to the peripherals (muscles)
59
Major Development Divisions of Brain
Telencephalon, Diencephalon (Forebrain)
Mesencephalon (Mid Brain)
Metencephalon, Myelencephalon ( hind brain )
60
What are the parts of the Mid brain (mesencephalon)
1. Superior colliculus
2. Inferior colliculus
3. Motor Nuclei
61
what are the parts of the Hind brain
Pons (Metencephalon)
Medulla (Myelencephalon)
62
Medulla Functions
Breathing, heart rate, blood pressure
63
Pons
Balance, taste, Swallowing
64
Subcortical Structures
Hippocampus
Basal Ganglia
Hypothalamus
Thalamus
Cerebellum
65
Basal Ganglia Components
Caudate
Putamen
Globus pallidus
Nucleus acumbens
66
What is an important function of the Amygdala and Hippocampus
Episodic long term memory
67
Lobes of the Cerebral cortex
Frontal
Parietal
Occipital
Temporal
68
What are sulci and fissures
Folds/clefts in the cortex
69
Important sulci and fissures for class
Sylvian Fissure (separates temporal lobe from frontal lobe)
Central sulcus (separates Frontal lobe from Parietal lobe)
Longitudinal fissure (Separates left and right hemisphere)
70
Sulci hidden inside the midbrain
Cingulate sulcus (
Calcarine sulcus (primary visual cortex sits on top of it)
71
What are the peaks or ridges of the folds called
Gyri
72
What are important gyri
Precentral gyrus (is where the primary motor cortex is)
Postcentral gyrus ( is where primary somatosensory cortex is)
73
more important gyri
Cingulate Gyrus
Cuneus (Visual cortex)
74
Commissures
bundles of axons that connect between hemispheres
75
What are the three commissures
Corpus Collosum (main connection of hemispheres)
Fornix (important for long term memory wiring)
Anterior Commissure (Good for a reference point for mapping)
76
Topic 3 Perception
:|
77
The inverse problem
Perception involves inferring the properties of a distal stimulus from a proximal stimulus
78
Proximal Stimulus
Image on the retina
79
Distal stimulus
Object being perceived
80
What part of the eye does the transduction of light into neural signals
Retina
81
Components that transduce light into neural signals (components of retina)
Rods and cones
Bipolar cells
Ganglion cells
Optic nerve
82
How do rods and cone differ
Rods- good in dim light
cones- color vision, require lots of light
83
How does the visual field work
Inner left and outer right of the eyes are the left visual field
Inner right and outer left of eyes are the right visual field
Left visual field is in Right V1
Right visual field is in the Left V1
84
Outer ear components
Ear lobe (auricle)
External auditory meatus
Tympanum (ear drum)
85
Middle ear components
Malleus
Incus
Stapes
86
Inner ear components
Cochlea
Hair cells
Basilar membrane
87
Auditory process
-Sound changes air pressure
-Ear drum converts air pressure into -vibrations
-Vibrations travel through bones of middle ear to oval window of cochlea
-Hair cells in cochlea detect the vibrations
- Hair cells open ion channels releasing neurotransmitters
88
Types of Somatosensorial
Mechanoreception (pressure vibration distortion)
Thermoception (temperature)
Nociception (harmful chemical, mechanical, or thermal stimuli)
Proprioception ( mechanical forces on muscles, tendons, and joints)
89
Topic 3 part 2
:|
90
What is sensory adaptation
Our perception of stimulus is relative not absolute, our senses adjust to stimuli over time
91
What is Weber's law
Is a just noticeable difference (smallest detectable change)
92
Weber fraction for senses
Loudness- .05
Brightness- .08
Heaviness- .02
93
Visual receptive field of retinal ganglion field
One ganglion cell receives signals from multiple bipolar cells and even more photoreceptors
94
what happens when light falls on the on area of a photoreceptor receptive field
Action potentials increase
95
What happens when light hits the off area
There are less Action potentials than baseline
96
What happens when light does not hit the receptive field
It stays at the baseline for that receptive field/ganglion cell
97
Auditory receptive fields
What is the receptive field of a hair cell
a region of hair cells along the cochlea
(different areas react to different frequencies)
98
Somatosensory receptive fields
Receptive field of a mechanoreceptor
Area of the skin ( some area have much smaller more precise fields)
99
What is plasticity
Changes in neural organization
occurs from molecular to the systems level
100
What is synaptic plasticity
Changes in strength of synapses
101
Cortical Reorganization (Plasticity)
Changes in topographic maps
102
What is topography
Spatial organization of sensory surface, is generally preserved in primary cortex
103
what is cortical Magnification
Area of cortex is proportional to density of sensory receptors (and is inversely related to receptive field)
104
What sense is related to a Retinotopic map
Visual
105
what sense is related to a Tonotopic map
Hearing
106
What sense is related to Somatotopic maps
Feeling
107
In hierarchical organization where are lower order and higher order neurons in the sequence of processing
Lower order neurons are closer to the sensory receptors
Higher order are farther away
108
What does V4 focus on
Colors
109
what does V1 focus on
orientation feature detectors
110
what does MT/V5 focus on
Motion
111
What are higher order sensory processing generally divided into
What and where streams
112
Characteristics of where (how) stream
Dorsal pathway (occipital lobe into parietal lobe}
Emphasis on location and motion
Processing for action
113
Characteristics of what (why) stream
Ventral pathway (Occipital lobe into temporal lobe)
Emphasis on shape and color
Processing for object recognition
114
Characteristics of Bottom up processing
Stimulus driven
Feedforward connections
Depends on proximal stimulus and genetic "hard-wiring" of sensory systems
115
Characteristics of Top down processing
Driven by goals and expectations
Feedback connections
Depends on past experience, internal state, environmental context
116
What is the likelihood principle
We perceive the world in a way that is most likely based on our past experience
117
where do high level action plans occur
Motor cortex
118
What are the three parts of the motor cortex and what do they do
Premotor and supplementary motor cortices (high level action plans)
and Primary motor cortex (more detailed motor plans)
119
What part of the brain determines when actions are taken or not taken
Basal Ganglia
120
What part of the brain makes our actions smooth and coordinated
Cerebellum
121
What function does local circuit neurons do
Reflex coordination
122
How is motor control organized
Hierarchically
123
Sequence of the Inverse model
Current position and desired position--> motor commands
Used to create motor plans
124
sequence of Forward model
Current position and motor commands--> predicted position
Used to evaluate motor plans and/ or actions
125
Characteristics of Feedforward control
Motor command sent to muscle
Faster but less accurate
126
Characteristics of feedback control
Motor command sent to muscle
Actual state compared to desired state
Adjustments made based on errors
Slower but more accurate
127
What is the Supplementary motor cortex involved in
involved in selecting goals and planning actions at a conceptual level
Particularly when plans involve internally generated sequences of actions
128
Which parts of the body are heavily represented in the homunculus
Hands and mouth
129
How does the Basil Ganglia help select, initiate, and inhibit movement
through cortico-basal ganglia-thalamocortical loops
130
what are the steps of the direct pathway
1- Cortex
2- striatum
3- Globus pallidus pars Interna (GPi)/ Substantia nigra pars reticula (SNr)
4- Thalamus
5- Cortex
131
what are the steps of the indirect pathway
1- Cortex
2- Striatum
3- Globus pallidus pars externa (GPe)
4- Subthalamic nucleus (STN)
5- Globus pallidus pars interna (GPi)/Substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr)
6- Thalamus
7- Cortex
132
What does the GPi and SNr do to the thalamus
Inhibit
133
How does the direct path works
1- motor cortex excites striatum
2- Striatum inhibits GPi/SNr
3- GPi/SNr disinhibit thalamus
4- Thalamus excites cortex
134
What cells are in the Cerebular cortex
Granule cells (50 billion)
Purkinje cells (200,000 inputs per cell)
135
What model does the cerebellum use
Forward model
136
Topic 5 attention
:(
137
what does exogenous source mean
In the environment, reflexive, automatic, bottom up
138
What does Endogenous source mean
In the mind, voluntary, intentional, top down
139
What does an external target mean
sensory info, in the environment
140
What does internal target mean
mental representations, in the mind
141
Types of attention
Overt vs Covert
Transient vs Sustained
Selective vs Divided
142
What are Event Related Potentials
Electric fields recorded outside the brain averaged across many experimental trials
143
What kind of attention has an effect on the Posner orientation task (Endogenous or exogenous) which mechanisms are be used (top down or bottom up)
Exogenous and bottom up
144
What does attention increase (what effect does it have on parts of the brain)
Synchronization
145
What else does attention do
-Affects reaction time, accuracy, and awareness of sensory stimuli
-Modulates neural activity
- enhances neural response to attended stimuli
146
What is neglect
Deficit of attention
147
What is change blindness
Changes in a picture or scene over time are not immediately apparent if not attended to
148
Unilateral neglect
Neglect that is only affecting one hemisphere
149
topic 6
:[
150
Long Term Memory Processes
Encoding
Consolidation
Storage
retrieval
reconsolidation
151
What does double dissociation do
provides strong evidence for separable systems that depend on different brain regions and distinct cognitive processes
152
What is habituation
Reduced response to unchanging stimulus (A noisy street outside begins to have a reduced repsonse)
153
Sensitization
Increased response to an unchanging stimulus (rubbing your arm for extended periods of time will get more sensitive)
154
Topic 7
:'(
155
what is the smallest unit of perceived speech
Phonemes
156
what is the smallest unit that signals meaning
Morphemes
157
Smallest units of stand alone meaning
words
158
Organized grouping of one or more words
Phrases
159
Set of words or phrases that tells a complete thought
Sentances
160
What is morphology
rules for combining morphemes into words
161
What is syntax
Rules for combing words into phrases into sentences
162
Surface structure
The order in which words are spoken
163
Deep structure
The actual meaning of the phrase structure
164
What is lexical ambiguity
when a word has two meanings
165
Syntactic ambiguity
When same words can be grouped together into more than one phase structure
166
Referential ambiguity
When same word/phrase can refer to two different things within a sentence
167
topic 8
KMS
168
What does prospect theory suggest
That people make decisions based on subjective utility, decision weights, and relative outcomes
169
What is subjective utility
People transform objective value into subjective utility
170
What is loss aversion
When losses loom larger that gains
171
What is decision weight
People transform objective probability into subjective decision weights
172
How are small probabilities weighted vs how large possibilities are weighted
Small are overweighted (1% is much better that 0%)
Large are underweighted (99% is a lot less than 100%
173
Framing effect
People make decisions based on gains and losses relative to a point of reference
174
What is Reward Prediction Error
Actual reward vs expected reward
175
What does dopamine actually do
It codes deviations from predictions about time and magnitude of reward. (expected outcomes)
176
What are the conclusions of the Iowa Gambling task
conceptual knowledge alone does not lead to good decision making
- emotions are neccessary for good decision making
- Patients with damage to the ventromedial prefrontal cortex could not generate expected emotions
-patients overemphasized immediate reward over long term outcomes
177
