Final Exam Flashcards
primary roles of cardiovascular system (4)
transport oxygen from lungs to tissues
to transport CO2 from tissues to the lungs
to transport nutrients
to excrete waste
what kind of muscle is the heart composed of
Cardiac muscle
What are the three main energy systems in the body?
Stored phosphocreatine (PC)
Anaerobic glycolysis
Aerobic (oxidative) formation of ATP
What molecule provides the energy necessary for muscular contractions
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP).
How does the anaerobic glycolysis system provide energy?
By breaking down glycogen or glucose in the absence of oxygen, producing 2 ATP molecules per glucose molecule and lactic acid as a byproduct.
What are the advantages of the aerobic (oxidative) energy system?
High ATP yield (36 ATP per glucose molecule, up to 460 ATP per fat molecule).
Sustainable for prolonged low-intensity exercise.
Byproducts are non-toxic (CO2 and water).
What is the primary source of energy during short, high-intensity activities like sprinting?
Stored ATP and phosphocreatine (PC).
What are the key adaptations of the aerobic system to training?
Increased oxidative enzymes and mitochondrial number/efficiency.
Higher glycogen and triglyceride storage.
Improved oxygen delivery through more capillaries and myoglobin.
What is VO2 max, and why is it significant?
VO2 max is the maximum volume of oxygen that can be consumed per minute per kilogram of body weight, indicating aerobic power and fitness level.
What factors limit the anaerobic glycolysis system?
Accumulation of lactic acid, leading to increased acidity.
Limited glycogen stores.
What is the Krebs Cycle, and where does it occur?
The Krebs Cycle occurs in the mitochondria and produces ATP, CO2, and water
What energy system does the Krebs Cycle occur in?
Part of the aerobic energy system.
How does carbohydrate consumption contribute to energy production?
Broken down into glucose, which can be stored as glycogen and utilized in anaerobic and aerobic pathways for ATP production.
What are the four chambers of the heart
Left/Right Atrium
Left/Right Ventricle
Function of the Left Ventricle
Pumps oxygenated blood through the entire body
Function of the Left Atrium
Receives oxygenated blood and pumps it into the left ventricle
Function of the Right Ventricle
Pumps deoxygenated blood a short distance to the lungs
Function of the Right Atrium
Receives deoxygenated blood from the body and pumps it into the right ventricle
What is the function of the sinus node in the heart?
generates an action potential that causes the heart muscles to contract, governing the rhythm of the heartbeat.
How does blood flow through the heart?
Right atrium → Right ventricle → Pulmonary arteries → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Left ventricle → Aorta → Body.
Main types of blood vessels
Arteries, capillaries, and veins
Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart
Capillaries
Facilitate the exchange of oxygen, nutrients, and waste products.
Veins
Carry blood back to the heart.
Systolic vs Diastolic
systolic = pressure when ventricles contract
diastolic = pressure when ventricles relax
average systolic / diastolic
120 mmHg / 80 mmHg
How does the skeletal muscle pump aid blood circulation?
It pushes blood through veins using the contraction of nearby muscles, aided by valves that prevent backflow.
blood travels to the lungs through
pulmonary arteries
blood enters the left atrium via
pulmonary veins
the right atrium receives deoxygenated blood via
the superior and inferior vena cava
once blood is oxygenated, where does the left ventricle pump it to
aorta
the action potential from the sinus node travels through the two atria and two ventricles via
The a-v node and purkinje fibres
neural control over HR is also through the
Autonomic (involuntary) nervous system
tachycardia
persistent resting HR > 100
brachycardia
persistent resting rate < 60
cutoff for blood pressure
144/94
stroke volume
volume from left ventricle = ml/beat
cardiac output
HR x Stroke volume
Heart rate increases during exercise based on
exercise intensity, directly proportional
max HR estimated using
220 bpm minus age
after 15 yrs of age, HR decreases ____
1 beat per year
arteries –> __________ –> capillaries
arterioles
What are the components of blood, and their primary functions?
Plasma: Transports nutrients, hormones, and waste.
Red blood cells: Transport oxygen and remove carbon dioxide using hemoglobin.
single red blood cell or ______
erythrocytes
What changes occur in the heart with endurance training?
Hypertrophy of ventricles.
Increased stroke volume.
Lower resting heart rate (e.g., 40-60 bpm in athletes).
What happens to the cardiovascular system during exercise?
Increased venous return enhances ventricular contraction.
hypertrophy of ventricles, increasing stroke volume and lowering resting heart rate.
role of respiratory system
deliver oxygenated air to blood and remove CO2 from blood
Respiratory system includes
Lungs
Passageways
Muscles
Respiration means
Ventilation, gas exchange and oxygen utilization by tissues for cell resp
what side of the lungs is bigger
right lung is larger, because heart takes up more space on the left side
functional zones of the resp system
Conduction zone
Respiratory zone
Conduction Zone
air passages that filter, humidify, and transport air
respiratory zone
site of gas exchange
How does the diaphragm contribute to inhalation?
The diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing chest cavity volume and decreasing pressure, drawing air into the lungs.
What happens to carbon dioxide in the respiratory system during gas exchange?
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the pulmonary capillaries into the alveoli and is then exhaled.
How do respiratory receptors respond during exercise?
Receptors in the aortic and carotid arteries sense changes in partial pressures of CO2, O2, and blood pH, signaling the brain to adjust breathing rate and depth.
What is hemoglobin’s role in oxygen transport?
Hemoglobin in red blood cells binds oxygen in the lungs and releases it to tissues, facilitating oxygen delivery during physical activity.
How does physical training affect lung capacity and volume?
Training increases lung capacity and efficiency, allowing for greater oxygen uptake and gas exchange.
What is the effect of exercise on the respiratory system?
Increases respiratory rate and depth.
Enhances oxygen delivery to muscles.
Improves elimination of metabolic by-products like CO2 and lactic acid.
components of the conducting zone?
Nose and mouth.
Pharynx and larynx.
Trachea.
Bronchi and bronchioles.
What are alveoli
tiny air sacs in the lungs where gas exchange occurs. They are surrounded by capillaries, allowing oxygen to diffuse into the blood and carbon dioxide to diffuse out.
How does gas exchange occur in the alveoli?
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into deoxygenated blood in the capillaries.
Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood into the alveoli to be exhaled.
What role do the external intercostal muscles play in respiration?
They elevate the ribs during inhalation, increasing the chest cavity volume and helping to draw air into the lungs.
What is the respiratory tree, and what does it include?
includes the trachea, bronchi, and bronchioles, which branch progressively smaller and lead to the alveoli.
How is oxygen transported in the blood?
Most oxygen (about 98%) is chemically bonded to hemoglobin in red blood cells.
What is the role of chemoreceptors during exercise?
Chemoreceptors in the aortic and carotid arteries detect changes in CO2, O2, and pH levels, signaling the brain to adjust respiration and heart rate.
What is the Bohr effect, and how does it help during exercise?
The Bohr effect is the increased release of oxygen from hemoglobin due to higher temperatures and lower pH during exercise, enhancing oxygen delivery to muscles.
How do the ribs and diaphragm work together during exhalation?
The diaphragm relaxes and moves upward, and the ribs lower, reducing chest cavity volume and increasing pressure to push air out of the lungs.
How many times do the bronchioles branch within the lungs?
The bronchioles branch over 23 times
What are the by-products of aerobic respiration?
Carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O)
What is aerobic fitness?
ability to produce energy through improved oxygen delivery to working muscles, involving the cardiovascular and respiratory systems.
What are the major effects of aerobic training on the cardiovascular system?
Increased red blood cell count.
Increased stroke volume and hypertrophy of the left ventricle.
More capillaries and surface area in muscles.
Greater oxygen extraction in muscles.
What are the metabolic adaptations to aerobic training?
Increased storage of glycogen and triglycerides.
Enhanced fat utilization as a fuel source.
More mitochondria and enzymes in muscle tissues.
How is Target Heart Rate (THR) calculated using the Karvonen Equation?
THR = [(Max HR - Resting HR) x Intensity] + Resting HR.
Example for 22-year-old at 60% intensity: THR = [(220 - 22) - 78] x 0.6 + 78 = 150 bpm.
What is the FITT principle for aerobic training?
Frequency: 5 days per week.
Intensity: At or above target heart rate or moderate-to-vigorous intensity.
Time: At least 30 minutes of continuous exercise.
Type: Activities involving large muscle groups, rhythmic and continuous.
What is MET and its significance?
MET (Metabolic Equivalent): 1 MET = resting oxygen consumption (~3.5 ml/kg/min).
Example: 10 METs = running 1 km in 5 minutes.
What are the average VO2 max values for men and women under 30 years?
Men: 34-54 ml/kg/min.
Women: 30-50 ml/kg/min.
Q: What is the role of the digestive system?
A: To produce energy and transfer nutrients, water, and electrolytes into the body.
Q: What are the four processes of the digestive system?
A: Digestion, secretion, absorption, and motility.
Q: What is digestion?
A: Breaking down food into absorbable molecules.
Q: What is secretion in the digestive system?
A: Release of digestive substances like saliva, HCl, and bile.
Q: What is absorption?
A: Uptake of digested nutrients into blood or lymph.
Q: What is motility in the digestive system?
A: Movement and mixing of food through the digestive tract.
Q: What is the role of hydrochloric acid in the stomach?
A: To dissolve food and kill bacteria.
Q: What is the function of saliva?
A: It moistens food and contains amylase to break down carbohydrates.
Q: What does the stomach secrete?
A: Hydrochloric acid (HCl) and pepsin.
Q: What are the three parts of the small intestine?
A: Duodenum, jejunum, and ileum.
Q: What does the liver produce, and what is its function?
A: Bile; it helps digest fats.
Q: Where is bile stored?
A: In the gall bladder.
Q: What happens in the large intestine?
A: Water is reabsorbed, and waste is concentrated.
Q: What does the pancreas secrete?
A: Digestive enzymes and alkaline fluid.
Q: What is peristalsis?
A: Involuntary muscle contractions that move food through the digestive system.
Q: What enzyme in saliva begins carbohydrate digestion?
Amylase
Q: What is the role of bile salts?
A: To aid in the digestion and absorption of fats.
Q: What protects the small intestine from stomach acid?
A: Alkaline fluid from the pancreas.
Q: What are feces primarily composed of?
A: Bacteria and undigested material like fiber.
Q: How does the digestive system contribute to muscle function?
A: It provides nutrients needed to generate energy (ATP) and build muscle proteins.
Q: What are the six essential nutrients?
A: Carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.
Q: What does “essential nutrients” mean?
Nutrients the body cannot produce or cannot produce in sufficient quantities, so they must come from food.
How is energy measured in food?
In kilocalories (Calories). One kilocalorie is the energy needed to raise the temperature of 1 kg of water by 1°C.
What is the primary source of energy for the body? (How many kcal/g)
Carbohydrates, providing 4 kcal per gram.
What are the two types of carbohydrates?
Simple carbohydrates (e.g., sugars) and complex carbohydrates (e.g., starches, fiber).
How is excess carbohydrate stored?
As glycogen in muscles and liver, or as fat when storage capacity is exceeded.
What are proteins primarily used for in the body?
Building and repairing tissues, producing enzymes, and supporting immune function.
What is a complete protein?
A protein source that provides all essential amino acids, such as meat, fish, eggs, and dairy.
How many kcal per gram do fats provide?
9 kcal per gram.
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?
Saturated fats are solid at room temperature and can raise LDL cholesterol, while unsaturated fats are liquid and can lower LDL cholesterol.
What are vitamins essential for?
Regulating metabolism and supporting growth and development.
What are the two types of vitamins?
Water-soluble and fat-soluble
Water soluble vitamins
B and C
Fat Soluble Vitamins
A, D, E, K
What do minerals do in the body?
Support bone health, regulate muscle and nerve function, and contribute to energy production.
Why is water important for the body?
It aids in digestion, nutrient transport, temperature regulation, and waste elimination.
What are the two types of dietary fiber?
Soluble fiber (lowers cholesterol) and insoluble fiber (aids in digestion).
Q: What is the energy-balance equation?
A: Energy intake (Calories from food) vs. energy expenditure (Calories burned).
Q: What is Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)?
A: The minimum energy required to maintain vital body functions at rest.
Q: What factors affect BMR?
A: Age, sex, body composition, and pregnancy.
What are the benefits of exercise for weight management?
Burns Calories.
Increases metabolic rate.
Preserves lean muscle mass.
What are common causes of obesity?
Overeating.
Lack of exercise.
Excess screen time.
Genetic factors.
What is BMI, and what are its classifications?
BMI = weight (kg) / height² (m).
BMI ≥ 30: Obese.
BMI > 25: Increased risk of disease.
What are general exercise guidelines for fat loss?
Use large muscle groups.
Exercise daily for at least 30 minutes.
Focus on moderate-to-high intensity activities.
What are the health risks associated with obesity?
Increased risk of coronary disease, stroke, hypertension, diabetes, and osteoarthritis.
What is Canada’s Food Guide’s key principle?
Eat a variety of healthy foods, limit highly processed foods, and make water the drink of choice.
What dietary changes can help reduce body fat?
Eat high-fiber, nutrient-dense foods.
Reduce added sugars and saturated fats.
Drink sufficient water.
Q: What are the two major types of eating disorders?
Anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa.
What are short-term effects of caloric restriction?
Weight loss, reduced metabolism, lack of energy, and irritability.
What are common pressures leading to eating disorders?
Cultural pressures to be thin and media influence.
What are potential negative effects of chronic dieting?
Increased body fat, menstrual irregularities, metabolic alterations, and low self-esteem.
What is anorexia nervosa?
A disorder characterized by inadequate food intake, avoidance of meals, and excessive exercise
What are common symptoms of anorexia nervosa?
Low body weight (less than 85% of normal), dry skin, and reduced bone mass.
What is bulimia nervosa?
A disorder involving binge eating followed by purging through vomiting, laxatives, or excessive exercise.
What are symptoms of bulimia nervosa?
Secretive eating, weight fluctuations, and nervous behavior after meals.
What are warning signs of eating disorders in athletes?
Excessive weight concerns, distorted body image, and unusual eating rituals
What physical problems can result from eating disorders?
Tooth decay, kidney damage, electrolyte imbalances, and dehydration.
What psychological issues are associated with eating disorders?
Low self-worth, mood swings, perfectionism, and feelings of guilt or shame.
What are the five components of health-related physical fitness?
Cardiorespiratory endurance
Muscular strength
Muscular endurance
Flexibility
Body composition
What is the definition of wellness?
A deliberate effort to stay healthy and achieve the highest potential for well-being by balancing components of health.
What are the leading causes of death in Canada that physical activity can help prevent?
Heart disease, stroke, hypertension, and type II diabetes.
What is the current grade for Canadian children’s overall physical activity?
A “D+” according to the 2024 ParticipACTION report.
How much physical activity is recommended for children aged 5-11 years?
At least 60 minutes of moderate-to-vigorous activity per day.
What percentage of Canadian adults meet physical activity guidelines?
Only about 20% meet the recommended guidelines.
What is physical activity?
Bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles requiring energy expenditure.
How does wellness differ from physical health?
Wellness encompasses a balance of physical, emotional, intellectual, spiritual, and social health, while physical health focuses on freedom from disease and fitness
What is cardiorespiratory endurance?
The ability of the heart, lungs, and blood vessels to supply oxygen to muscles during sustained physical activity.
What are the six principles of fitness training?
Progressive overload
Reversibility
Specificity
Periodization
Individuality
Recovery
What is progressive overload?
Gradually increasing training demands to improve physical and neural functions.
What is reversibility?
The loss of training adaptations due to insufficient training or inactivity.
What does the SAID principle stand for?
Specific Adaptations to Imposed Demands.
What is periodization in training?
Adjusting volume and intensity over time to prevent overtraining and maximize performance.
What is the importance of recovery in training?
Adaptations occur during recovery, not during the workout itself.
What is a general work-to-rest ratio for strength training?
1:5 (e.g., 30 seconds work with 2.5 minutes rest).
What factors influence training individuality?
Maturity, fitness level, motivation, strengths/weaknesses, and training environment.
How can training intensity be increased in endurance training?
By decreasing the time to complete a set distance or increasing the percentage of VO2 max
What are the three phases of injury healing?
Inflammatory Response Phase
Fibroplastic Repair Phase
Maturation-Remodeling Phase
What are the signs of the inflammatory response phase?
Redness, swelling, pain, increased temperature, and loss of function.
What is R.I.C.E., and when is it used?
Rest, Ice, Compression, Elevation—used to treat acute injuries like contusions or sprains.
What is the fibroplastic repair phase?
Granulation tissue fills the gap, and collagen fibers are deposited to repair the injury.
What is the maturation-remodeling phase?
Remodeling and realignment of scar tissue along tensile stress lines to restore function.
What is a contusion?
A bruise caused by compressing soft tissue, often leading to discoloration and swelling.
What is the difference between a strain and a sprain?
Strain: Injury to muscle or tendon.
Sprain: Injury to a ligament.
What is a dislocation?
When joint surfaces come apart due to excessive force, stretching or tearing supporting structures.
What are the types of fractures?
Closed fracture.
Open fracture
Stress fracture
Avulsion fracture
closed fracture
stays within soft tissue
open fracture
protrudes through skin
stress fracture
from repeated low loads and overuse
avulsion fracture
ligament/tendon pulls a bone chip
what is a concussion
A brain injury caused by violent shaking, leading to confusion and temporary loss of brain function.
What are overuse injuries?
Injuries caused by repeated low-magnitude loads, poor technique, or insufficient recovery.
What is a stress fracture?
A small crack in the bone from repeated low-magnitude forces, different from shin splints.
How can injuries be prevented?
Use protective equipment.
Warm up and cool down.
Stay fit and flexible.
Eat well and rest adequately.
