Final Exam Flashcards
What is ethnocentrism
tendency to judge other cultures by one’s own values
~ viewing their own culture superior to others
What is cultural relativism?
Accepting and appreciating other cultures for their ways of development and survival
~ respecting and accepting -other (maybe even unfamiliar) cultures
Whats ethnology?
an in-depth study and comparison of past & contemporary cultures
Whats cultural anthropology?
the study of how culture shapes human behaviour (learned) and ideas
Whats physical anthropology?
the study of the physical and biological nature of human beings
What is sensation?
the first stage of human mental processes that activates our sense receptors (smell, taste, sight, hearing, touch)
What is perception?
the second stage of human mental processes that allows us to select, organize, and interpret sensory signals in the brain
In what type/stage of sleep do dreams commonly occur?
REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
What is stress?
a physical & psychological response to circumstances in the environment that test our ability to cope
What is sociology? How many types are there?
2 types:
~ sociology: scientific study of people in groups
~ social psychology: study of individuals within their social & cultural settings
Who was Lucy? What hominid was she?
- the first Australopithecus afarensis discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia
~ fossilized remains
~ she was an Australopithecus afarensis
What is positive reinforcement
positive reinforcements occur in situations/conditions where the likelihood is INCREASED for the behaviour to continue happening
ex. rewards
What is negative reinforcement
negative reinforcements DECREASE the likelihood that the behaviour will continue.
Who studied the Arapesh, Mundagumor, Tchambuli?
Margaret Mead
What happened in the Arapesh
- children were treated warmly
- both genders grew up to view the world in a trusting way
- anger was not acceptable
What happened in the Mundagumor
- boys and girls were treated harshly
- viewed others as enemies
- children grew up to be aggressive
What happened in the Tchambuli
- women are tough and hearty while men are passive and look after the households
- girls are trained in handicrafts and absorbed into womens way of life
- boys are not trained
- gender roles (woman being more dominant)
What is memory
the capacity to acquire, retain, and recall knowledge and skills
what is episodic memory
recalling event from a past experience
What is semantic memory
knowledge of how the world works without experiencing it yourself
What is sensory memory
information gained through the environment by the senses
* records info for a few seconds
What is short-term memory
- memory stored for 15-20 seconds
- unrehearsed memory
- can store up to 7, unorganized items, plus or minus 2
What is long-term memory
- important, meaningful memory
- memory that is longer than 15-20 seconds
- Information is encoded and stored in a systematic and organized way
What is structural functionalism
various segments of society serve a larger purpose as a whole
What is conflict theory
power holds society together (not function)
~ people within society are competitive by nature
what is symbolic interactionism
how individuals interpret and act upon their social worlds
What is feminist sociology
emphasizes understanding the social roles of men and women in different cultures
~ women and gender inequalities in society
What are the 5 main agents of socialization
- family
- peers
- school
- media
- culture
what are the 5 branches of cultural anthropology
- archaeology
- applied anthropology
- anthropological linguistics
- ethnology
- ethnography
What are the 5 steps of the inquiry model
1) identify a problem or question
2) develop a hypothesis
3) gathering data
4) analyzing data
5) drawing conclusions
Which primate species had the ability to use fire and develop more sophisticated tools?
homo erectus
Which species has an ape-like face but an arched foot, and its pelvic and leg bones resembled those of modern humans?
Australopithecus afarensis
Which early human species lived around 4.4 million years ago and was able to walk on two feet?
Ardipithecus ramidus
Which species is considered a direct line to modern humans and had a larger brain with a skull shape similar to that of humans
homo habilis
Which species is known to have buried its dead and possibly lived in caves?
homo sapiens (neanderthals)
What do all cultures have in common?
- culture is shared
- culture is learned
- culture defines nature
- culture has patterns
- culture shapes the way we perceive the world
Say the order of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
( top to bottom)
- Transcendence: helping others to self-actualise
- self-actualization: personal growth, self-fulfillment
- Aesthetic needs: beauty, balance
- Cognitive needs: knowledge
- Esteem needs: achievement, status
- Belongingness and Love needs: family, relationships
- Safety needs: Protection
- **Biological and Physiological needs: ** basic needs of life (ex. food, water, shelter, sex)
Why do we need sleep
- replenishes chemicals used when awake
- helps in the growth process
- growth hormones are released
- maintains good physical health and healthy brain function
What is REM sleep?
- Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
~ makes up 20-25% of a night’s sleep
~ eyes are darting around under the eyelid
~ blood pressure rises and adrenaline shoots into the body
~ muscles of the body become paralyzed
~ most vivid dreams
What is NREM sleep?
- Non-Rapid Eye Movement Sleep
~ makes up 75-80% of a nights sleep
~ known as “quiet sleep”
~ heart rate and breathing is regular
~ little body movement
~ blood pressure and brain activity are at their lowest points
What is the nature vs. nurture debate?
nature - biological, inherited
nurture - upbringing, socialization, surrounding environment
How much sleep do teenagers need?
9 to 9.5 hours
What are the four major social classes?
- The Wealthy Upper Class
~ 3-5% of the population - The Middle Class
~ 40-50% of the population - The Working Class
~ 30% of the population - The Poor
~ 20% of the population
What are the two types of social control? explain each
- Informal Control
~ occurs in everyday actions with others and through our own sense of right and wrong
~ most powerful social control - Formal Control
~ maintains order in large, complex societies
~ traditionally epitomized by the Criminal Justice System particularly the police, the judicial system and the penal system
What are the causes of deviant behaviour?
- Biological Theory
~ a result of brain functioning or genetics - Psychological Theory
~ a result of early experiences, personality patterns, or problems - Sociological Theory
~ believes that deviance is a learned response to the environment
What are the different aspects of the Sociological Theory when talking about deviance?
- Motivational
~ believe it is the result of people being encouraged to achieve but not having the tools to succeed - Learning
~ believe it is a result of observing and learning from others - Control
~ believe it is a result of the absence of social control and if the rewards for such behaviour are more certain than the punishment - Labelling
~ believe it is a result of automatically defining or “labeling” people in a particular way
What are the two ways poverty is measured? explain each
**1. Absolute Poverty **
~ having a lack of essential resources for physical and medical survival
2. Relative Poverty
~ comparison of someone’s individual standard of living to the national average
~ this is measured by LICO (Low Income Cut Off Line)
~ for LICO, most people spend 35% and people who spend 55% or more are poor
What are the three different roles that are played in the family? explain each
**1. Conventional Roles **
~ men and women have separate areas of activity
~ women take care of the household while men work outside
2. Shared Roles
~ both partners work outside and share household responsibilities
~ women are still seen more for housework
**3. Dual-Career Roles **
~ both partners have permanent careers so the household responsibilities are divided more equally
What are the different functions of the family?
- caring for one another (ex. feeding and giving clothes)
- providing other necessities
- socializing with children to teach them interaction skills and how to properly behave
- spreading love and affection
What are social norms?
taught to behave certain ways in particular situations
What are the levels of social norms?
- Folkways - informal practices, based on traditions (ex. excuse me)
- Mores - norms involving ethical or moral judgments (ex. lying, cheating)
- Laws - formal rules enforced by officials in a society (ex. stealing, murder)
What is personality?
usual way of feeling, thinking, and acting that is unique to an individual
How does personality develop?
- through socialization; how you are treated and according to the personalities of the people surrounding you
- cultural attitudes encourage and discourage some personality traits
- Unconscious mind (Freud)
- Birth order
What is Sigmund Freud’s theory of personality
~ unconscious mind is the main force behind personality development
~ socialization develops the ego and superego which control the basic drives and instincts of the id
What is Jean Piaget’s theory of personality?
- cognitive development is influenced by both social & psychological factors
- 4 stages of cognitive development in children:
~ 1. Sensorimoter stage (birth-2): babies use their senses
~ 2. Pre-operational stage (2-7): children use speech and print; they see things from their own POV and not for others
~ 3. Concrete operational stage (7-11): can do complex things like arithmetic and measurements only if the physical objects are present; learn in terms of cause and effect
~ 4: Formal operational stage (adolescence): manipulate ideas, think abstractly; use logic and imagine alternatives to reality
Explain the specific roles of the Ego, Id, and Superego.
Id - first aspect to develop, we are born with it; it’s apart of the unconscious mind and is responsible for the biological impulses and needs that promote life (ex. hunger, thirst)
Superego - part of the mind that tells us what to do and what to not do; it develops around moral and ethical restrictions which are placed on us by caregivers and culture
Ego - the conscious and rational part of the mind where decisions are made; it acts like a referee between the id and the superego and ultimately decides if the needs of the id are greater than the superego and vice versa
What are the different categories of mental illness?
AMPSS
- Anxiety Disorders
- Mood Disorders
- Personality Disorders
- Schizophrenic Disorders
- Substance-Related Disorders
Why do we study emotions?
- to understand ourselves
- make us human
- certain emotions can motivate us to act in certain ways
Why do humans feel emotions?
- they help motivate our behaviour
- they are a survival strategy (“fight or flight”)
What are the three components that make up our emotions?
- cognitive (mental state)
- physical (physical characteristics that accompany emotional reactions)
- behavioural (expressing emotions through acts, body language, etc.)
What are the different research methods
CESIO
Case Studies
Experiments
Sample Survey
Interview
Observation
What three things must always be present in social science research?
ROV
Relevance
Objectivity
Validity
What are the 11 defense mechanisms? explain each.
- Compensation: making up for a weakness in one area by doing better in another
- Daydreaming: fantasizing to escape reality
- Denial: refusing to acknowledge
- Displacement: taking out impulses on less threatening targets
- Identification: taking on the role of others
- Minimizing: ignoring problematic behaviours as being too minor to worry about
- Projection: putting your fault on someone else
- Rationalization: using an excuse to cope with bad behaviour
- Reaction Formation: taking the opposite belief because the true one gives you anxiety
- Regression: Reverting to immature behaviour
- Sublimation: acting out unacceptable impulses in a socially right way
What was Charles Horton Cooley’s theory on personality?
- our sense of self is derived from others, like the image of a looking glass
- the reactions of others are like mirrors that show us who we are
- reflection of personality
- we develop a set of beliefs about ourselves
What was George Herbert Mead’s theory on personality?
- The self develops through social interaction with others. There are 3 stages of role taking:
1) Preparatory stage - children imitate the behaviour of people around them
2) Play stage - children act out the roles of adults
3) Game stage - children play group games and learn about the rules and roles within a team
What was Erik Erikson’s theory on personality?
- the development of the self doesn’t end at childhood or adolescence; it is lifetime. 5 stages:
- Infancy & Childhood: relationships with parents, family and friends. focus is to develop emotionally, socially, etc.
- Adolescence: development of personal identity
- Early adulthood: learning to form close, lasting relationships & commitment to a career choice.
- Middle adulthood: develop a sense of productivity and accomplishment. some individuals may restructure their lives
- Late adulthood: elders are revered and their wisdom is respected. people are forced to retire
What did Mary and Louis Leakey discover?
- discovered many fossils and remains like Homo habilis
- found remains of hominids at Olduvai Gorge
What did Raymond Dart discover?
- found a species of humans from 3 million years ago in South Africa
- the remains included a skull and fossilized brain
- species was named Australopithecus africanus
What’s the stanley milgram experiment?
tested the willingness of participants to follow the orders of a person in authority, even if those orders caused them personal harm
What’s the phil zimbardo experiment? (aka the Stanford prison experiment)
- 12 people were guards and 12 were prisoners; they were experimented on to show the power of roles, rules, and group identity.
- this experiment showed the psychological effects of authority and powerlessness in a prison experiment
What’s the soloman asch experiment?
a study that showed how individuals chose wrong answers to fit in a group and to follow the others
~ emphasized how people may follow wrong trends
What is Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences?
states that each individual has different intelligences that they use in daily lives. these include:
- visual
- musical
- kinesthetic
- logical
- interpersonal
-intrapersonal
- linguistic
- naturalistic
What factors affect perception? What are the problems with it?
- can have a negative force when it misguides you
- we begin to think with closed minds
- our perceptions may prejudice our views of the world
What did Albert Bandura identify as the four processes that are crucial to observational learning? explain each.
ARRM
- Attention: you must pay to the behaviour and actions of other
- Retention: you must be able to store a mental representation of what is observed in your memory
- Reproduction: you need to be able to convert stored memory into actions
- Motivation: you must be motivated in order to practice the skill
in ivan pavlov’s dog experiment, what was the unconditioned stimulus?
the food
was the philip zimbardo experiment (stanford prison experiment) ethical
The Stanford Prison Experiment is generally agreed to have been highly unethical. First, the participants did not believe they had an option to leave the prison and effectively withdraw from the study; due to the extreme psychological conditions, they believed they were really in a prison.
What are the Social Sciences and what are they interested in?
- Anthropology - the study of the human species, dead or alive
~ two branches: cultural and physical - Sociology - the study of people in groups and within social structures
- Psychology - the study of human mental processes
~ two types: theoretical & clinical
What are the three reasoning methods? explain each.
- Deductive: you begin with a general principle and apply it to a specific situation
- Inductive: you begin with a specific principle and apply it to a general situation
- dialectical: both sides and point of view are heard and evaluated; used the most in the social sciences
What are the different stages of Freud’s theory of psychosexual development? Explain each stage.
- Oral Stage: libidal energy focuses on sucking things
- Anal Stage: libidal energy focuses on the anus
- Phallic Stage: libidal energy focuses on genital region
- Latency Stage: libidal energy is suppressed
- Genital Stage: libidal energy is focused on the genitals again
in which stage of psychosexual development does the child become jealous, sulky, needy
the phallic stage
What did Herbert Spencer accomplish?
- applied evolutionary theory to psychology
- agreed with Charles Darwin
- Synthetic psychology
- his work was very influential in the U.S., when its new civilization was being established
What did Ruth Benedict accomplish/discover?
- found patterns in culture
- She challenged the racist theory and proved it wrong
What did Margaret Mead discover/accomplish? `
- focused on the study of culture and personality
- conducted an experiment to determine whether gender roles are born with or learned (nature vs nurture)
- concluded that culture, not biology, determines human behaviour (nurture over nature)
What did Franz Boas discover/accomplish?
- the theory of cultural relativism: to appreciate and accept unfamiliar cultures as being unique in which they have survived
- father of anthropology
What stage of psychosexual development does the individual become envious and suspicious?
oral stage
What is operant conditioning?
learning by rewards and punishments
What is classical conditioning?
learning by association (taking a response to a particular stimulus and causing that same response to occur with another stimulus by associating the new stimulus with the original one)
