Final Exam Flashcards
what is the structure and function of platelets?
flattened cell fragments, no nucleus, contain some granules. live about 10 days. participate in blood clotting.
what is the structure and function of erythrocytes?
biconcave disc, anucleate and no organelles, contains hemoglobin. Life span of 100-120 days. Binds and transports O2 and some CO2
what is the structure and function of hemoglobin (Hb)?
globin made of 4 polypeptide chains. each chain contains 1 heme group with 1 iron atom. binds to oxygen.
what is the difference between erythrocytes and leukocytes?
erythrocytes are red blood cells while leukocytes are white blood cells. RBCs transport gases and nutrients while WBCs fight infection primarily.
what are the types of leukocytes?
-neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils (granulocytes)
-monocytes and lymphocytes (agranulocytes)
what is the structure and function of neutrophils?
granulocyte, multilobed nucleus, bacteria slayers, kill by respiratory bursts or defensins.
what is the structure and function of eosinophils?
granulocyte, bilobed nucleus. important responders in asthma, allergies, attack parasitic worms.
what is the structure and function of basophils?
granulocyte, bilobed hidden nucleus, contain histamines. histamine is vasodilator and attractant for other WBCs.
what is the structure and function of monocytes?
agranulocyte, kidney u-shaped nucleus, largest leukocyte. Become phagocytic macrophages, activate the immune system.
what is the structure and function of lymphocytes?
agranulocyte, large round nucleus.
T lymphocytes: act on infected cells or tumor cells.
B lymphocytes: become plasma cells and release antibodies.
what are the 3 steps of hemostasis?
vascular spasms, platelet plug formation, coagulation
what happens in vascular spasms?
the vessels constrict.
what happens in platelet plug formation?
positive feedback loop. platelets swell, form spikes, stick to each other and collagen fibers in the wall. platelets release chemical messengers that increase platelets and vascular spasms.
what happens in coagulation?
both intrinsic and extrinsic pathways are triggered. Inactive clotting factors become activate. Each clotting factor activates the next.
what happens in the 3 phases of coagulation?
- extrinsic and intrinsic factors both activate clotting factor X, which activates prothrombin activator.
- prothrombin activator activates prothrombin. prothrombin activates thrombin.
- thrombin activates fibrinogen which activates fibrin. fibrin forms strands and the strands form a fibrin net.
compare and contrast the extrinsic versus intrinsic pathways of coagulation.
intrinsic pathway: activated by factors in the blood, slower.
extrinsic pathway: activated by tissue factor, less clotting factor to activate, faster pathway.
how are ABO blood groups determined?
The blood can have either an A or a B antigen (Ag). If the blood has the A Ag, the blood type is A. If the blood has the B Ag, the blood type is B. If the blood contains both Ags then the blood type is AB, and if the blood type does not contain either Ag the blood type is O.
How is a positive or negative blood type determined?
With the presence or absence of the Rh Ag. The presence of this indicates a positive blood type, while the absence indicates negative.
What is the microscopic anatomy of cardiac muscle tissue?
striated muscle, light I and dark A bands, uninucleate with many mitochondria. gap junctions, desmosomes.
Name the components of the conduction (heart) system
SA node begins polarization wave, both atria contact. Depolarization spreads to AV node, spreads to AV bundle. Spreads to right and left bundle branches, spreads to purkinje fibers, both ventricles contract.
What is the pathway of blood in the heart?
SVC/IVC, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid valve, left ventricle, aorta
What event does systole represent?
contraction of chamber, blood empties
What event does diastole represent?
relaxation of chamber, blood fills
what is the relationship of heart rate, cardiac output, and stroke volume?
CO=HRxSV
What happens in capillary exchange?
filtration. hydrostatic and osmotic pressures cause fluid to leave capillaries (arterial end) and enter capillaries (venous end). diffusion with gradients. O2 and nutrients enter tissues, CO2, and metabolic wastes enter blood.
What are the pressures involved in capillary exchange?
Hydrostatic pressures-> pushing out
Osmotic pressures-> pulling in
NFP= outward pressures-inward pressures
What is hemodynamics?
study of blood’s forces moving through body
What changes blood pressure?
increased heart rate, increased ventricular force, increased volume.
What changes resistance?
increased viscosity, increased vessel length, decreased blood vessel diameter.
What is the relationship between blood pressure and resistance?
inverse relationship.
F= change in P/R
what are blood pressure and pulse?
blood pressure: pressure of blood against blood vessels. highest pressure (systolic) lowest pressure (diastolic).
pulse: a rhythmic throbbing of the arteries as blood moves through them
what are the factors responsible for maintenance of blood pressure?
extrinsic controls, intrinsic controls such as changes in O2, stretch of vessel walls.
describe baroreceptors and how they regulate blood pressure
vaasomotor center stimulates vasoconstriction. cardioaccelatory center stimulates increased HR -> increase CO. increased R + increased CO= increased BP
cardoinhibitory center decreases HR
describe the formation of lymph
interstitial fluid enters permeable lymphatic capillaries
describe the circulation of lymph through different lymphatic vessels
vessels-> trunks-> ducts
List factors that
contribute to the maintenance of lymphatic circulation
contraction of skeletal muscle, pressure changes in thorax, valves preventing backflow, pulsating nearby arteries, rhythmic contractions from smooth muscle in walls.
define lymphedema
severe, localized edema that prevents normal return of lymph to blood
what is the difference between innate defenses and adaptive defenses?
innate: front line soldiers, prevents entry and spread, responds within minutes
adaptive: elite force with special weapons, stalks and precisely eliminates, takes time for response
what is the structural relationship between an antibody monomer, antigen, and antigenic determinants?
ab monomer: 4 looping polypeptide chains
antigen: pollen, bacteria, fungi, viruses. specific substance that provokes an immune response and causes Ab production
ag determinants: component of Ag where Ab binds
what are the mechanisms of antibody action?
mark Ag for destruction. have a PLAN of action (Precipitaiton, Lyses, Agglutination, Neutrilization)
list the components of the 1st line of innate defense
surface barriers. skin, mucous membranes, protective chemicals
list the components of the 2nd line of innate defense
fever, inflammation
what are the steps of inflammation?
pathogen infects cell causing chemical alarm. vasodilation causes hyperemia (redness and heat), increased vessel permeability (swelling and pain), phagocytes flock to infection.
what is the difference between humoral and cellular immunity?
Humoral: provided by antibodies within fluids (B cells) target bacteria, toxins, free viruses
Cellular: provided by T cells, have intracellular targets.
what are the four steps of respiration?
pulminary ventilation, external respiration, transportation of gases, internal respiration
describe the structure and function of the respiratory membrane
is to allow gas exchange by simple diffusion and to exist as a blood-air barrier
what are the differences between type I and type II alveolar cells and macrophages?
simple squamous epithelium (type 1 alveoli), Type 2 secrete surfactant (which decreases surface tension) and antimicrobial proteins,
macrophages -> phagocytize microbes
identify and describe actions of the muscles involved in forced respiration
neck-pect-erect
scalene-all neck muscles
pectoralis minor-all elevate rib cage
erector spinae - changes back curvature
identify and describe actions of the muscles involved in quiet inspiration
contract
rib cage moves up and out (parallel parking)
it increases thoacic cavity and lung volume
define compliance and describe factors that affect it
stretch or expansion of lungs. elasitcity (distensibility)> C Is reduced by scar tissue from infections
alveolar surface tension >C IS REDUCED by decreased surfactant
describe how oxygen is transported in blood
hemoglobin with RBCs
dissolved in plasma
how is CO2 transported in the blood?
carbonic acid dissociates into hydrogen and bicarbonate.
describe the chloride shift in relation to CO2 loading in the tissues and unloading in the lungs.
negative chloride ions counterbalance negative bicarbonate ions entering or leaving RBC
List the secretions involved in chemical digestion in all regions of the gastrointestinal tract. Name the
structure that produces them, where they act, and their purpose in the digestion.
-Bile salts (liver and gall bladder) emulsify lipids
-Hcl (in stomach) helps to activate pepsin for protein digestion
-Pepsin (in stomach) digests proteins
-bicarbonate neutralizes acids
Describe the phases of swallowing (deglutition).
bolus of food goes into the esophagus, upper esophogeal sphincter closed. soft palate blocks the nasal cavity, tongue blocks the oral cavity, epiglottis blocks the larynx, UES opens. bolus is lodged down esophagus and UES closes again.
Describe the endocrine mechanisms that regulate gastric secretion, and describe the stimulation and
functions of local hormones produced by the stomach and small intestine.
-Secretin (duodenum) inhibits stomach
It stimulates pacreas to release HCO3- to neutralize the acid chyme
-Cholecystokinin (duodenum) inhibits in stomach
Its function is to digest fats/lipids.’
in the pancreas, gall bladder, liver>bile lipase digest
-Gastrin (stomach) is stimulated in the stomach
It’s function is to digest proteins
Differentiate among the cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases of digestion.
cephalic: taste/smell of food
neural stimulation (Vagus n) causes gastric secretion
gastric: stomach (beginning of protein digestion, churning occurs
Hormone gastrin stimulates gastric secretion and motility
intestinal: releases chyme
Identify the gross anatomical features of the kidney, both internal and external.
hilum->entry/exit for ureter and renal arteries and veins
adrenal gland->produces steroid hormones, epinephrine, and norepinephrine
fibrous capsule-> covers each kidney
cortex-> outermost region
medulla-> contains pyramids and columns
pelvis-> innermost region, collects urine from all major calyces
Describe the basic structure and function of a nephron
microscopic system of tubules intertwined with capillaries, urine producing units
List the structures of the filtration membrane, and draw a diagram depicting the relation of each structure.
fenestrated endothelium (allows everything but blood cells through), basement membrane, (block large proteins) foot processes of podocytes (trap any macromolecules).
Explain the countercurrent mechanism and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone mechanism.
fluids flowing in opposite directions and osmotic gradient is created. helps to maintain our water electrolyte balance. renin causes activation of angiotensin which secretes aldosterone, ADH, increased thirst, vasoconstriction-> leads to increased blood volume and presure.
Discuss the roles of the kidneys in acid-base balance.
kidneys reabsorb or generate bicarbonate to lose H+ or decrease acidity, they excrete bicarbonate to increase acidity.
what is pulmonary ventilation?
breathing
what is external respiration?
exchange between lungs and blood
what is transport of gases?
cardiovascular system pumps blood between lungs and tissues
what is internal respiration?
exchange between blood and tissues
