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Animal Phys > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

the passive transport of water across a membrane, which can be a cell membrane, an epithelium, or an artificial membrane

A

Osmosis

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2
Q

the net movement of anything generally from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration

A

Diffusion

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3
Q

the substance that dissolves solutes

A

Solvent

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4
Q

a substance that is in solution (dissolved in solvent)

A

Solute

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5
Q

the aqueous solutions inside cells

A

Intracellular fluid

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6
Q

the aqueous solutions outside cells

A

Extracellular fluid

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7
Q

the state toward which an isolated system changes; the state toward which a system moves -internally- when it has no inputs or outputs of energy or matter

A

Equilibrium

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8
Q

synonymous with equilibrium but emphasizes that the equilibrium state for an ion or other charged solute depends on both electrical and chemical effects

A

Electrochemical Equilibrium

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9
Q

the amount of a particular substance that diffuses across a unit area in 1 s under the influence of a gradient of one unit.

A

Diffusion coefficient

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10
Q

protein molecules that span across the cell membrane allowing the passage of ions from one side of the membrane to the other

A

Ion channel

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11
Q

a channel that “opens” and “closes” to facilitate or inhibit solute passage

A

Gated channels

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12
Q

the ease with which a particular solute can move through a cell membrane/epithelium by diffusion, or the ease with which water can move through it by osmosis

A

Permeability

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13
Q

the state of having a high permeability to some solutes but a low permeability to others

A

Selective permeability

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14
Q

a measurement of how much something changes as you move from one region to another

A

Gradient

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15
Q

a mechanism of active transport

A

Pump

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16
Q

the measure of the rate of the movement of water across a cell membrane

A

Osmolarity (=osmotic pressure)

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17
Q

Animals’ bodies are _________ and water is the __________

A

solutions

solvent

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18
Q

Most ion channels are __________ (can be either open or closed), and changing ion channels from open to closed or vice versa underlies much of animal physiology

A

gated

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19
Q

Diffusion is always towards ______________

A

equilibrium

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20
Q

Water always diffuses to the area of __________ osmolarity (osmotic pressure), regardless of the concentration of any specific solute

A

Higher

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21
Q

What is the difference between passive and active transport

A

whether an input of energy is required to move a substance

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22
Q

Explain the function and importance of the Na+/K+ pump (what is it for?)

A

It helps a cell keep its inside Na concentration low and its inside K concentration high

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23
Q

____________ basically do all the work in organisms (and make up much of the mass)

A

Proteins

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24
Q

the role of glucose as a __________________ in most animals

A

“transport carbohydrate”

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25
Q

Explain why fat is a better way to store calories long-term than carbs or protein

A

Fat is more calorie dense

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26
Q

All animals produce __________________ , but that in ______________, the heat produced is not enough to significantly warm the animal’s tissues

A

metabolic heat
ectotherms

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27
Q

Say which groups of animals are endotherms and which ectotherms

A
  • Endotherms: Mammals, birds, medium/large-size insects
  • Ectotherms: fish
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28
Q

Explain why regulating body temperature is so useful, giving specific physiological advantages

A
  • You are able to live in colder climates
  • Can operate at night
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29
Q

Describe the basic advantages/disadvantages of ectothermy & endothermy

A

o Endothermy:

  • Advantages
    · Can live in a variety of climates
    · Don’t have to depend on movement in order to maintaine body functions
    · Have more energy they can use for brain power
  • Disadvantages:
    · Have to use energy in order to maintain body temperature

o Ectothermy
- Advantages:
· Don’t have to use energy to maintain a certain body temperature

  • Disadvantages:
    · Have to constantly be replacing heat
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30
Q

Explain or draw the relationship between environmental temperature and metabolic rate for ectotherms and for endotherms

A
  • Ectotherms: as temperature rises the resting metabolic rate increases exponentially
  • Endotherms: increase their metabolic rate in order to stay warm
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31
Q

if an animal’s tissues are warmed by its metabolic production of heat

A

endotherm(-y,-ic)

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32
Q

animals whose body temperatures are determined by the thermal conditions outside their bodies

A

ectotherm(-y, -ic)

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33
Q

the maintenance of a relatively constant tissue temperature

A

Thermoregulation

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34
Q

temperature difference

A

thermal gradient

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35
Q

the range of ambient temperatures over which the metabolic rate is constant regardless of ambient temperature

A

thermoneutral zone (TNZ)

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36
Q

the unsynchronized contraction and relaxation of motor units in skeletal muscles in high—frequency rhythms, producing heat rather than organized motion as the primary product

A

Shivering

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37
Q

elevation of heat production for thermoregulation by means other than shivering

A

non-shivering thermogenesis (uncoupling of ETCs)

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38
Q

exchange of heat by passive transport between two closely juxtaposed fluid streams flowing in opposite directions

A

Counter-current heat exchange

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39
Q

an organized constellation of neurons and glial cells specialized for the conduction of electrical and chemical signals within and between cell

A

nervous system

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40
Q

a system that releases hormones into the blood

A

endocrine system

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41
Q

a cell that is specifically adapted to generate an electrical signal

A

Neuron

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42
Q

a specialized site of communication between two neurons, between a neuron and an effector, or between a non-neuronal sensory cell and a neuron

A

Synapse

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43
Q

the receptive element of most neurons, which receives synaptic input from other neurons

A

Dendrite

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44
Q

the portion of a neuron that contains the cell nucleus

A

Cell body

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45
Q

a process of neuron specialized for conveying action potentials (usually) away from the cell body

A

Axon

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46
Q

a molecule that is used as a chemical signal in synaptic transmission

A

Neurotransmitter

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47
Q

a sensory receptor that is a neuron, or a peripheral neuron that is excited by a non-neural sensory receptor cell.

A

Sensory Neuron

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48
Q

a neuron that conveys motor signals from the central nervous system to the periphery to control an effector such as skeletal muscle

A

Motor Neuron

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49
Q

a neuron that is confined to the central nervous system and is therefore neither a sensory neuron nor a motor neuron

A

Interneuron

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50
Q

the potential difference (voltage) across a cell membrane or other selectively permeable membrane

A

Membrane potential

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51
Q

cells in an animal’s neural tissue other than neurons. Considered support cells, ensheathing neuronal processes or regulating the metabolism of neurons.

A

Glia (Glial Cell)

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52
Q

a voltage change that makes a cell membrane potential more inside-negative (normally moves it further from zero)

A

Hyperpolarization

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53
Q

the membrane potential at which an ion species is at electrochemical equilibrium, with concentration-diffusion-forces offset by electrical forces so that there is no net flux of that ion species across the membrane

A

Equilibrium potential

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54
Q

a brief electrical signal across the cell membrane of a neuron or other excitable cell

A

Action Potential

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55
Q

an insulating sheath around an axon, composed of multiple wrappings of glial cell membranes, that increases the velocity of propagation of action potentials

A

Mylein

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56
Q

Explain or identify the different methods of control used by nervous and endocrine systems

A
  • The nervous system primarily controls the moment-to-moment movements of individual muscles
  • Control by the nervous system involves neurons that send axons to discrete postsynaptic cells. Neurons propagate rapidly conducting action potentials to transmit signals from point to point within a cell. Fast, specific control by releasing neurotransmitters at synapses
  • The endocrine system controls prolonged and widespread activities
  • Endocrine cells release hormones into the bloodstream to mediate endocrine control. All body cells are potential targets of a hormone, but only those with specific receptors for the hormone actually respond. Hormonal control is slower, longer lasting, and less spatially circumscribed than neural control.
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57
Q

the membrane potential = __________________

A

the voltage across the membrane

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58
Q

Describe what creates the resting membrane potential

A

The movement of K+ out of the cell + potassium sodium pump

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59
Q

Action potentials vary in ___________, but not in _________ (size)

A

frequency
amplitude

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60
Q

membrane-bound vesicles in a presynaptic terminal, into which neurotransmitter molecules are connected

A

Synaptic vesicle

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61
Q

a neuron or other cell that transmits a signal to a postsynaptic cell at a synapse

A

Presynaptic

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62
Q

a neuron or effector cell that receives a signal (chemical or electrical) from a presynaptic cell at a synapse

A

Postsynaptic

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63
Q

a neurotransmitter receptor molecule that changes the membrane permeability of the postsynaptic cell to particular ions when it binds neurotransmitter molecules

A

Ionotropic

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64
Q

a neurotransmitter receptor that acts via signal transduction to alter a metabolic function of the postsynaptic cell

A

Metabotropic

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65
Q

any increase in the inside positivity of a cell membrane, even if it exceeds zero

A

Depolarization

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66
Q

a voltage change in a postsynaptic cell (normally a depolarization) that tends to excite the cell
inhibitory postsynaptic potential

A

Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP)

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67
Q

a voltage change in a postsynaptic cell (normally a hyperpolarization) that tends to inhibit the cell

A

Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)

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68
Q

a complex process which describes how neurons integrate the receiving inputs from thousands of presynaptic neurons before the generation of a nerve impulse

A

Synaptic integration

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69
Q

a membrane receptor protein that, when it binds to its specific extracellular signal ligand, relays a signal into the cell by activating G proteins in the cell membrane

A

G-protein coupled receptor

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70
Q

a sensory cell that is specialized to respond to a particular kind of environmental stimulus

A

sensory receptor cell

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71
Q

in sensory systems, the region of a sensory surface within which stimulation changes the activity of a particular neuron

A

receptive field

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72
Q

a complex multicellular structure specialized to detect a particular type of sensory stimulus

A

sense organ

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73
Q

the conversion of stimulus energy into an electrical signal in sensory receptor cells; the electrical signal is usually a receptor potential

A

transduction

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74
Q

a sensory receptor cell specialized to respond to mechanical stimulation

A

mechanoreceptor

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75
Q

a sensory response to a chemical stimulus. Includes taste and olfaction (the sense of smell), as well as other chemical sensitivities

A

chemoreceptor

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76
Q

response of a sensory cell to light stimulation. Contain a photopigment that absorbs light and triggers a response

A

photoreceptor

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77
Q

the graded change in membrane potential that occurs in a sensory receptor cell when it is stimulated

A

receptor potential

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78
Q

Identify and describe the general function of all sensory receptors (transduction)

A

The basic function of a sensory receptor cell is to convert stimulus energy into an electrical signal (sensory transduction)

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79
Q

Sensory receptors are modified ___________ of sensory neurons, or sometimes, modified __________________ that signal directly to such neurons

A

dendrites
epithelial cells

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80
Q

Increased stimulus intensity is always “coded” as increased __________________, no matter what the sense

A

action potential frequency

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81
Q

the consolidated integrative part of an animal’s nervous system; in vertebrates, consists of the brain and spinal cord

A

central nervous system

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82
Q

consists of all the processes and cell bodies of sensory and motor neurons that are present outside the CNS. Provides sensory information (from both external and internal sources) to interneurons in the CNS

A

peripheral nervous system

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83
Q

is activated in stressful situations

A

sympathetic nervous system

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84
Q

rest and digest

A

parasympathetic nervous system

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85
Q

highly complex nervous systems allow for highly complex behavior, but are very ___________ to develop and maintain

A

“expensive”

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86
Q

a chemical substance that is produced and released by endocrine cells, and that exerts regularity influences on other, distant cells that it reaches via the blood

A

Hormone

87
Q

A gland or tissue without ducts that secretes a hormone into the blood.

A

Endocrine gland

88
Q

made of assemblages of amino acids and soluble in water

A

Protein Hormone

89
Q

nonpolar hormones synthesized on demand from cholesterol, secreted by diffusion through the cell membrane and circulated in the blood or hemolymph bound to carrier molecules

A

steroid hormone

90
Q

A system of blood vessels in a vertebrate that connects capillaries in the hypothalamus to capillaries in the anterior pituitary

A

hypothalamus

91
Q

when one hormone opposes the action of another

A

antagonistic control

92
Q

Since hormones go everywhere, the specificity of hormone action is determined by _________

A

what tissues and cells express receptors for that hormone

93
Q

Any animal’s most immediate needs are getting rid of _______ and obtaining ________ in that order if __________ , and in the reverse order if ____________

A

CO2
O2
terrestrial
aquatic

94
Q

animals breathe (pump air or water over their respiratory membrane) to increase the __________________ across those respiratory membranes

A

rate of gas transport

95
Q

Water costs more energy to breathe than air because it’s _________

A

denser

96
Q

What is the draw and relationship between solubility of a gas in water and temperature

A

gas solubility decreases with increasing temperature

97
Q

What is the draw and relationship between solubility of a gas in water and salinity

A

Gas solubility decreases with decreasing salinity.

98
Q

Explain why tiny animals (microscopic animals) do not need respiratory systems, but larger animals do

A

In tiny animals O2 is able to move as fast as needed from the environment to all parts of the body by diffusion. In larger animals however diffusion of O2 within the body occurs through body fluids and tissues and diffusion does work in larger animals

99
Q

a thin layer of tissue consisting typically of just one or two simple epithelia (i.e., one or two cell layers)—separates the internal tissues of the animal from the environmental medium (air or water)

A

gas-exchange membrane

100
Q

The process by which an animal gains O2 from its environment and voids CO2 into its environment.

A

external respiration (breathing)

101
Q

invaginated into the body and contain the environmental medium

A

lung

102
Q

located on an exposed body surface and project directly into the surrounding environmental medium

A

gill

103
Q

flowing through a tube → example: blood flowing through a blood vessel

A

unidirectional breathing

104
Q

back and forth flow, in and out of a blind-ended cavity → example: lungs of mammals

A

tidal breathing

105
Q

A type of gill ventilation observed in certain types of fish (e.g., tunas) in which the fish holds its mouth open as it swims forward, thereby using its swimming motions to drive water over its gills.

A

ram ventilation

106
Q

the blind-ended terminations of the branchings of the respiratory tract that form the surface for exchange of gases between the air and the blood

A

alveolus/alveoli

107
Q

a sheet of muscular and connective tissue that completely separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities

A

diaphragm

108
Q

the medium and the blood flow in opposite directions

A

countercurrent gas exchange

109
Q

some fish breathe ______, benefiting from the high O2 content of air compared to water

A

air

110
Q

Describe or identify the similarities and differences between lungs and gills

A

Lungs = air breathing
Gills = water breathing

111
Q

Why are gas exchange membranes highly folded?

A

The folds greatly increase the membrane surface area which in turn increases the rate of diffusion of oxygen into and out of the blood

112
Q

Identify which animals can be expected to have larger, thinner gas exchange membranes and exactly why.

A

Tuna and animals that must acquire O2 at high rates

113
Q

Describe the ways in which bird breathing and lungs are fundamentally different from that of other vertebrates

A
  • Lungs don’t expand and contract air, it is just being pushing through the air sacs
  • Air sacs extend into the bones
  • Unidirectional air flow
  • Cross current gas exchange
  • Membrane is really thin and surface area is higher than any other animals
114
Q

Any metalloprotein pigment that undergo reversible combination with O2 and thus are able to pick up O2 in certain places in an animal’s body and release it in other places

A

respiratory pigment

115
Q

Formed by the combination of heme with a globin protein. Undergoes reversible combination with O2 at the heme loci.

A

hemoglobin

116
Q
  • The combination of respiratory pigments with O2
  • Oxygenation of this sort is reversible and not equivalent to oxidation.
A

oxygenated

117
Q

The release of O2 from a combined state with a respiratory pigment such as hemoglobin

A

deoxygenated

118
Q

the ease with which hemoglobin binds with the O2 molecules it encounters

A

affinity

119
Q

A hemoglobin-containing cell in the blood of an animal.

A

erythrocyte (red blood cell)

120
Q

Referring to the O2-carrying properties of blood, a graph of the amount of O2 per unit of blood volume as a function of the O2 partial pressure of the blood

A

oxygen equilibrium curve

121
Q

Blood hemoglobins play important roles as acid–base _________ and participate in blood CO2 transport as well as O2 transport

A

buffers

122
Q

A state in which the pH of the body fluids is excessively acid.

A

acidosis

123
Q

A state in which the pH of the body fluids is excessively alkaline.

A

alkalosis

124
Q

Although most animals have respiratory pigments, only some have __________

A

hemoglobin

125
Q

Only vertebrates keep their hemoglobins in ___________

A

erythrocytes

126
Q

In a resting endotherm, only a ________ proportion of the oxygen brought to the tissues by hemoglobin is used up; and that this means there is a lot of ___________ in the system: possibility for exercise

A

small
“expansibility”

127
Q

Explain what causes different animals to have differently-shaped oxygen equilibrium curves

A
  • endothermy: If an animal is endothermic they need more oxygen in order to maintain their body temperature
  • metabolic rate
128
Q

An aquatic animal that maintains a blood osmotic pressure higher than the osmotic pressure of the water in which it lives.

A

Hyperosmotic regulator

129
Q

Where are hyperosmotic regulators typically found?

A

In freshwater

130
Q

Describe and draw the relationship between an animal’s size and its evaporative water loss

A
  • Animals that are smaller and lighter in mass have the highest weight-specific EWLs
  • Animals that are larger and heavier in mass have the highest total EWLs
131
Q

An aquatic animal that maintains a blood osmotic pressure lower than the osmotic pressure of the water in which it lives.

A

Hyposmotic regulator

132
Q

Organs other than kidneys that excrete concentrated solutions of inorganic ions.

A

Salt gland

133
Q

Animals that are restricted to humid, water-rich terrestrial microenvironments; unable to live steadily in the open air.

A

Humidic animals

134
Q

Able to live steadily in the open air and thus face the full drying power of the terrestrial environment

A

Xeric animals

135
Q
  • The fluids between cells in tissues. - In animals with closed circulatory systems, the fluids between cells in tissues other than blood
A

Interstitial fluid

136
Q

The part of the blood that remains after blood cells are removed; the part of the blood other than cells.

A

Blood plasma

137
Q
  • A synonym for blood in an animal that has an open circulatory system
  • Emphasizes that the blood in such animals includes all extracellular fluids, and thus that there is no distinction between the fluid that is in the blood vessels at any one time and the interstitial fluid between tissue cells.
A

Hemolymph

138
Q

Having a higher osmotic pressure. Said of a solution in comparison to another, specific solution

A

Hyperosmotic

139
Q

Having the same osmotic pressure. Said of a solution in comparison to another, specific solution

A

Isosmotic

140
Q

The maintenance of a constant or nearly constant osmotic pressure in body fluids regardless of the osmotic pressure in the external environment.

A

Osmoregulation/Osmoregulator

141
Q

A state in which the osmotic pressure of the body fluids matches, and varies with, the osmotic pressure in the external environment.

A

Osmoconforming/Osmoconformer

142
Q
  • Water that is formed by chemical reaction within the body.
  • Example: when glucose is oxidized, one of the products is H2O that did not previously exist
A

Metabolic water

143
Q

What three things are all in equilibrium with respect to total osmolality?

A

plasma
interstitial fluid
intracellular fluid

144
Q

Recognize that plasma and interstitial fluid are in equilibrium for _____________ , but these are not usually similar to intracellular ionic composition (remember all those Na+ and K+ pumps!)

A

individual ions

145
Q

What is the fundamental challenge to terrestrial life?

A

dehydration/desiccation

146
Q

What percentage of terrestrial animals are water?

A

50%-60%

147
Q

Most marine invertebrates are ___________ to seawater

A

isosmotic

148
Q

Most marine fish are ___________ to seawater

A

hyposmotic

149
Q

Seawater is 1 Osm = ________ mOsm

A

1000

150
Q

Explain the function and importance of the Na+/K+ pump

A

It helps a cell keep its inside Na concentration low and its inside K concentration high

151
Q

Why is fat a better way to store calories long-term than carbs or protein

A

They exceed proteins and carbohydrates in their energy value per unit of weight

152
Q

Explain what the variable a “means,” and how it varies for different groups of animals, in M=aWb

A

a value determines if an animal if endothermic (high a value) or exothermic (low a value)

153
Q

Identify the different methods of control used by nervous system

A
  • The nervous system primarily controls the moment-to-moment movements of individual muscles
  • Fast, specific control by releasing neurotransmitters at synapses
154
Q

Identify the different methods of control used by endocrine system

A

The endocrine system controls prolonged and widespread activities

155
Q

Describe what creates the resting membrane potential

A

The movement of K+ out of the cell through the leak channels

156
Q

Explain how and why a gill or lung’s effectiveness at removing O2 from the air or water is affected by whether breathing is tidal or unidirectional

A

Because fresh air is constantly being brought in and not mixed with stale air and old air does not have to go out the same way it came in.

157
Q

Why do ectotherms, but not endotherms, normally express mixes of many different hemoglobins, with different O2 binding characteristics?

A

ectotherms need to have hemoglobin isomers that work at different temperatures

158
Q

Differentiate between regulating your total osmolality and regulating specific ion concentrations (and recognize that all animals do the latter)

A

Specific ionic regulating: the maintenance of a constant or nearly constant concentration of an inorganic ion in the plasma
Total osmolality regulation: the maintenance of a constant or nearly constant osmotic pressure in the blood plasma

159
Q

Explain why a reduced permeability of an animal’s skin/integument is an effective osmoregulatory strategy for any osmoregulating organism; explain why gills/lungs must be an exception to this; describe how skin is made impermeable to water

A
  • it reduces their rates of passive water and ion exchange and thus in reducing their energy costs of maintaining a normal blood composition
  • Lungs + gills are permeable to both water and oxygen because it is impossible to have a membrane that is permeable to oxygen that is not permeable to water unlike skin that has lipids that make it impermeable to water.
160
Q

Given a pair or group of animals, rank their evaporative water loss (as a percent of body weight, per unit time) and explain your rankings

A

Proportional to weight-specific rate of EWL

161
Q

Describe the major methods animals use to minimize urinary water loss

A
  • Make urine more concentrated
  • Making nitrogenous waste not water soluble
162
Q

Describe or identify the difference in composition of blood and (the initial) filtrate in the kidney

A

Kidneys do not have plasma proteins and red blood cells but blood does

163
Q

Explain how the loop of Henle (nephron loop) produces a osmolarity gradient from less concentrated to more concentrated (low to high Osm) from the cortex to the inner medulla of the kidney

A
  • Puts sodium on the outside of the tube which attracts water and water leaves the tube as it descends causing the osmolarity to increase.
  • Puts sodium on the outside of the tube and lines the tube with cholesterol making it impermeable to water so sodium leaves as it ascends causing the osmolarity to decrease again.
164
Q

Identify the basic functions in mammals of the loop of Henle (nephron loop)

A

it makes urine more salty by extracting water

165
Q

List or identify the general functions of kidneys

A
  • Regulates the volume of blood
  • Regulates the total osmolality of blood
  • Regulates the concentration of waste products in the blood
  • Regulates the concentrations of ions, especially Na, K, and HCO3 in the blood
  • Regulates the pH in the blood (main way to regulate pH in the blood is breathing but kidney is long term)
166
Q

Explain why osmoregulation costs energy (what is it spent on?); explain why it costs more energy in marine than freshwater fish

A
  • Ion pumping
  • Most types of freshwater animals have far less concentrated body fluids than their ocean relatives.
167
Q

What is the diffusion equation

A

J=D (C1-C2)/ X2

168
Q

Why are lipids (fats) the most effective way to store calories?

A

They can store more calories per gram

169
Q

What is the total metabolic rate formula

A

M=aWb

170
Q

Explain how the value of b affects the range of sizes of animals on earth

A

higher b value = more very small animals
lower b value = more very large animals

171
Q

Describe some characteristics animals with high weight-specific metabolic rates have (to accommodate those high rates)

A
  • Small species have far higher heart rates than do large ones
  • Small species breathe faster
172
Q

Give examples of different kinds of mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors and explain what information they convey and how they do it.

A
  • Mechanoreceptor (touch and hearing) → has stretch-gated ion channels to respond to stimuli
  • Chemoreceptors (smell and taste) → using G- protein coupling transduction mechanisms
  • Taste uses ionotropic
173
Q

Identify or list the structural families of hormones

A

steroids, peptides, and amines

174
Q

Explain the difference between simple and facilitated diffusion and which substances are likely to be able to use simple diffusion.

A

Simple diffusion: the direct transport of molecules across the cell membrane that is allowed by the cell membrane.
Small hydrophobic molecules → oxygen and carbon dioxide

Facilitated diffusion: occurs through the action of transmembrane proteins such as carrier proteins, channel proteins, and aquaporins.
Example: movement of sodium through a sodium channel + transport of glucose from the blood plasma into cells throughout an animal’s body

175
Q

Explain the importance of a high surface area: volume ratio in physiological systems, including giving examples

A
  • High surface area releases more heat
  • Lower surface area retains more heat
176
Q

List the major substances that move between cells and blood

A

O2
CO2
glucose
nitrogenous wastes

177
Q

Describe the role of the stomach in digestion and absorption in vertebrate animals

A
  • stores ingested food
  • initiates protein digestion
  • breaks up food by a combination of muscular, acid, and digestive-enzyme effects
178
Q

Describe the role of the small intestine (midgut) in digestion and absorption in vertebrate

A
  • the principal site of digestion of proteins, carbohydrates, and lipids
  • the principal site of absorption
  • the principal structure where the products of digestion of all three categories of foodstuffs (as well as vitamins, minerals, and water) are taken up into the blood or lymph
179
Q

Describe the role of the large intestine (hindgut) in digestion and absorption in vertebrate animals

A
  • store wastes between defecations – - complete the absorption of needed water and minerals from the gut contents prior to elimination
180
Q

Describe some characteristics animals with high weight-specific metabolic rates have (to accommodate those high rates)

A
  • Small species have higher heart rates
  • Small species breathe faster
181
Q

When and where in a neuron does PSPs occur

A

after the opening of K+ channels
in dendrites

182
Q

When and where in a neuron does APs occur

A

after the opening of Na+ channels
in axons

183
Q

How do sensory receptors “fit in” to an overall neural circuit

A

They are presynaptic to one or more interneurons which then route sensory information for processing

184
Q

Give examples of different kinds of mechanoreceptors or chemoreceptors and explain what information they convey and how they do it

A

​​- Mechanoreceptor (touch and hearing) → has stretch-gated ion channels to respond to stimuli
- Chemoreceptors (smell and taste) → has transduction mechanisms

185
Q

Describe situations in which nervous or endocrine control would be better, and why

A
  • Neuronal signals are fast and addressed → rapid movements of discrete skeletal muscles
  • Endocrine signals are slow and broadcast → metabolic changes
186
Q

We could expect to find the most oxygen (or any soluble gas) in water that is ________ and ____________

A

cold
not very salty

187
Q

Affinity for O2 ___________ as blood pH decreases

A

decreases

188
Q

Affinity for O2 ___________ as partial pressure of O2 in the blood increases

A

decreases

189
Q

Affinity for O2 __________ as temperature increases

A

decreases

190
Q

Affinity for O2 __________ as CO2 partial pressure increases

A

increases

191
Q

A key difference between the proximal convoluted tubule and distal convoluted tubule is that reabsorption is basically ________ at the PCT and ___________ (according to what’s needed) at the DCT

A

fixed
variable

192
Q

The largest classes of invertebrates also have ______________ structures that produce and filter urine

A

kidney-like

193
Q

Insects are the only invertebrate class that can produce a _____________ urine

A

hyperosmotic

194
Q

Describe what happens to the energy animals consume

A

It is used to perform biosynthesis (growth and production of organic compounds), maintenance (processes that maintain the integrity of the body (maintaining body temp and ion pumps)), and generation of external work. It then leaves the body as heat or chemical energy

195
Q

Explain how endotherms maintain their body temperatures, including both “insulation-managing tricks” within the TNZ and metabolically costly mechanisms above and below the TNZ

A

Above the TNZ:
Active evaporative cooling
- Sweating
- Panting
- Gular fluttering

Below the TNZ:
- Shivering
- Nonshivering thermogenesis → uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport in mitochondria
- Redirecting blood flow away from its skin (uses minimal metabolic
energy)

196
Q

__________ K+ leak channels would cause a relatively __________ resting membrane potential

A

fewer
depolarized

197
Q

True or false: Voltage-gated does not affect resting membrane potential

A

True

198
Q

Leak K+ channels stay open _________________ for action potential effects

A

at all times

199
Q

___________ Na+ voltage gated channels = a __________ polarization of membrane voltage

A

less
smaller

200
Q

_________ voltage gated K+ channels = more of a ______________ of membrane voltage for AP effects

A

more
hyperpolarization

201
Q

Explain what is happening at each stage of the action potential (what ions are moving where, etc.) and the relationship between the ion movement and voltage change across the membrane

A

Increase in positive membrane potential is caused by the voltage gated Na+ channels opening → the inward Na+ current depolarizes the membrane voltage causing the membrane potential to be at its most positive state → The voltage gated Na+ channels begin to close and the outward flow of K+ drives the membrane potential back toward the equilibrium potential for K+ back

202
Q

Explain how action potentials propagate in the absence of myelin, and in its presence (NOT just how the two are different, but literally how action potentials are regenerated down the axon in each separate case).

A

in the absence:
A threshold stimulus causes voltage gated sodium channels to open which causes an influx of sodium. This generates an action potential which also establishes a depolarizing current that flows to the next segment and brings it to threshold and the process repeats itself.

in the presence:

203
Q

Explain why a depolarizing PSP is excitatory (an EPSP)

A

A synaptic potential that depolarizes the cell membrane is excitatory → because it increases the positive charge in the dendrite, slightly depolarizing the cell body and potentially the axon toward threshold

204
Q

Explain why a hyperpolarizing PSP is inhibitory (an IPSP)

A

A synaptic potential that hyperpolarizes the cell membrane is inhibitory. → because it decreases the positive charge in the dendrite, slightly hyperpolarizing the cell body and potentially the axon away from threshold

205
Q

Draw or interpret a general neural circuit (as in the cockroach figure)

A

Stimuli → Sensory Neurons → CNS interneurons → Motor neurons → effectors (movement)

206
Q

What is the basic process of synthesis of a protein hormone?

A
207
Q

What is the basic process of synthesis of a steroid hormone?

A
208
Q

what is the general mode of action of a steroid hormone?

A
  • to modify gene expression in target cell
  • Peptides are faster than steroids
209
Q

what is the general mode of action of a protein hormone?

A

to change events in the cytoplasm of target cell/change existing proteins

210
Q

If glucose is high then insulin is _______

A

high

211
Q

If glucose is high glucagons is ________

A

low

212
Q

Describe the ways in which reptiles “improved” the amphibian breathing of their ancestors, and why they had to

A

Development of a bronchus → allows air to flow to all of the multiple chambers in the lung
The lungs are filled principally or exclusively by suction (aspiration) rather than by buccal pressure during ventilation → freed the buccal cavity from one of its ancient functions, allowing it to evolve in new directions without ventilatory constraints
Formation of a multiple-chambered lung

213
Q

Describe the ways in which mammals “improved” the reptilian breathing of their ancestors, and why they had to

A

Created even more surface area of gas-exchange membrane per unit of lung volume which is beneficial since reptiles are know to be very active
Development of the diaphragm

214
Q

Describe the costs and benefits of osmoregulation and osmoconformity

A

Osmoregulation:
- Costs more energy
- Animals cells are able to cope with the changing osmotic–ionic conditions that comes with living in different environments

  • Osmoconformity:
  • Costs less energy
  • animals can’t cope with the changing osmotic–ionic conditions in the interstitial fluid when living in different environments

Animal Phys (4 decks)

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