final exam

Question 1

what general diagnostic member to we use to classify a syndrome, and what features often accompany this?

Answer 1

any clinically signifigant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion, regulation, or behavior
features that accompany this is:
* disfunctional or maladaptive
* often accompanied by distress

what is constitudes clinically “signifigant” is debated

Question 2

describe the general motiviation behind the premise underlying the medical model

Answer 2

the medical model was inspired by the search for physical causes of mental disorders
* Genetically-influenced brain structure
* Biochemical abnormalities/imbalances

Underlying premise: Mental illness (psychopathology) is diagnosed on the basis of symptoms, treated through therapy, and cured

Question 3

what is the vulnerability stress-model, and in what way(s) is it related to the biopsychsocial approach?

Answer 3

individual dispositions cominded with envriomental stressors can cause a mental disorder

Question 4

indetifty and describe the three fold purpose of classyfiying disorders. how has the DSM-5 been crititzied in it’s attempt to develop diagnostic classifications?

Answer 4

predict a disorder’s future course, suggest appropriate treatment, and prompt research. the DSM-5 has been critzized by:
* it’s to broad
* it’s subjective
* biasing power of labels

Question 5

generally speaking, what is the best approach to talking to someone who is thinking about suicide?

Answer 5

listen and empathize
connect the person with conseling rescourses or crisis text lines
protect someone at immediate risk by seeking help

Question 6

describe the immigrant paradox and how it relates to psychological disorders.

Answer 6

immigrants to the u.s. have mental health than u.s. born counterparts. this relates to psycholgical disorders because mexican immigrants are less likely to attain a psychological disorder than an american-born mexican

Question 7

according to a study by the NIMH in 2015, what can we say about the prevalence of psycholgical disorders in american adults?

Answer 7

1 in 5 adult americans currently have a “mental, behavioral, or emotional disorder(excluding developmental and substance use disorders)”

Question 8

what is a risk factor? indentify the 5 factors assoicated with developing psycholgical disorders.

Answer 8

a risk factor are things that put people at a higher risk for developing a psycholgical disorder
5 factors associated are:
* chronic illness
* genetics
* not enough sleep
* poor academics
* truama

Question 9

what is a protective factor? idenitfy 5 factors assoicated with developing psycholgical disorders.

Answer 9

a protective factor is something that lowers someone’s risk for developing a psychologial disorder
5 factors assoicated are:
* exercise
* good parenting
* coping with stress
* high self esteem
* having a secure community

Question 10

how is anxitey and depression alike? how are they different?

Answer 10

they both have simular symptoms; they are both generic terms; Both hijack our fight-or-flight system, which is actually maladaptive

Question 11

identify and describe 5 symptoms assoicated with DSM-5 classification of major depressive disorder.

Answer 11

1. depressed mood most of the time
2. dramatically reduced intrest/enjoyment
3. less energy
4. thinking repeaditly of death and suicide
5. problems in thinking, concentrating, or making decisons

Question 12

what are some known contributors to the development of a major depressive disorder? what do we know about the prevelance of a major depressive disorder, and how may people with this diagnoses seek treatment?

Answer 12

caused by a major life event (60%) ; it can be heraitary (37%). mdd is worldwide; leading cause of disability; leading cause why mental health services are sought

Question 13

what are the two trademarks of biopolar disorder? how is creativity related to the diagnoses of biopolar disorder?

Answer 13

manic episodes; depressive episodes; creativity is related to the diagnoses of biopolar disorder because it occurs more often in those relying on emotional expression and vivid imagery

Question 14

in what ways is bipolar disorder simular to major depressive disorder and how are they different?

Answer 14

they are simular because they both cause someone to feel depressed; depression is a constant feeling of depression; bipolar disorder alternates between depression and overexitement

Question 15

describe some features unique to depression that must be explained when developing a theory of depression

Answer 15

depressionis the leading cause of disability worldwide, #1 reason why mental health servies are sought, and may have a seasonal pattern

Question 16

how has the biological perspective informed what we know about depression? how has the social-cognitive perspective informed what we know about depression?

Answer 16

the biological perspective informs us it may be hertitary, brain activity will be lower and social- cognitively, life is seen through a lens of low self esteem that feeds depression

Question 17

provide an example of a negative explanatory style common to those with depression

Answer 17

when people blame themselves for events that happen

Question 18

what are the two major classes of nerve cells? compare and contrast a typical animal cell with a typical neruon. you should also be able to label the major components of a typical neuron

Answer 18

neruons and glia cells; animal cells are round, while a human cell has other parts coming off of the nucleus

major componets: dendrite, cell body (soma) , synapse, axon, myelin sheath

Question 19

describe the primary roles associated with gilal cells

Answer 19

they support neurons, maintain synapes, modulating nerual actvivity, and controling blood-barrier

“glue”

Question 20

why is nerurotransmission referred to as an electrochemical process? which parts of the process are considered electrical, and which parts are considered chemical?

Answer 20

it has both Electrical processes (within neurons; inside the neurons) and chemical processes (between neurons; what connects two neruons).

Question 21

name and distingush the 4 primary zones of a typically neuron. which structures and functions are associated with each zone?

Answer 21

input zone collects and processes infomation; intergration zone is where the descison to produce a nerual singal is made; conduction zone is where infomation can be electrically transmitted; the output zone is where the neron transfters infomation to other cells

Question 22

describe the concept of co-occurence and how this relates to learning and neruoplasty.

Answer 22

co-occurrence is when two or more things happen together frequently, which strengthens neural connections in the brain. this supports neuroplasticity, allowing the brain to adapt and rewire itself

Question 23

generaly speaking, what does the nervous system do

Answer 23

it takes information from the world and the body’s tissues, makes decisions and sends back information and orders to the body’s tissues

Question 24

distingiush between the central neruosystem and the perpheral neruosystem

Answer 24

central nervous system is the brain and spine and peripheral nervous system is everything else

Question 25

generally speaking, what is the endocrine system and what does it do?

Answer 25

secretes hormones into the bloodstream

Question 26

what is the major funtion of the adrenal glands?

Answer 26

triggers the "flight or fight" response

Question 27

why do we refer to the pituitary gland as the "master gland"

Answer 27

secretes many glands

Question 28

what is the neruoendoctrine system, what are its primary compents and how does it operate in a postive feedback loop?

Answer 28

the body's slow chemical communication system; the feedback system reveals the intimate connection of the two | Brain➔pituitary➔other glands➔hormones➔body and brain

Question 29

in what ways can we consider the "theraputic lifestyle change" a type of biomedical therpy?

Answer 29

it uses changes in lifestyle to influence brain and body and positively affect mental health

Question 30

what is psychopharmacology, and which structure is primarly involed in psychopharmacological process? provide an example of the mechinism of action using SSRIs as the exmplar.

Answer 30

psychopharmacology is the use of medications to treat mental health conditions; SSRIs are used in this; mechanism of action occurs at the synapse

Question 31

describe the 4 major categories of drug therapies. why are they still studied today?

Answer 31

* antipsychotic drugs: Used to treat schizophrenia and other forms of severe thought disorder (e.g., Thorazine) * antianxiety drugs: Used to control anxiety and depression (e.g., Xanax) * antidepressant drugs(e.g., SSRIs): Used to treat depression, anxiety disorders, OCD, and PTSD (e.g., Prozac) * mood-stabilizing drugs: Used to control manic episodes associated with bipolar disorder (e.g., Depakote, lithium)**

Question 32

what is the goal of using brain stimulation as biomedical theapy? describe the major 4 categories of brain stimulation. what do they have in common and how are they different from eachother?

Answer 32

to treat depression (and other symptoms of psychiatric or neurological disorders) by stimulating the brain directly; 4 major categories are: 1. **Electroconvulsivetherapy** (ECT): shocks the brain 2. **Transcranial direct current stimulation** (tDCS): weaker current 3. **Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation** (rTMS): pulses 4. **Deep-brain stimulation** (DBS): inserts electrodes into brain they are simular because they all stimulate the brain; they are different because they're all done differently

Question 33

why is psychosurgery a questionable approach to biomedical theapy? in what cases is it often reiled on?

Answer 33

it is the tost drastic and least-used biomedical intervention for changing behavior, however it has helped uncontrollable seizures, severe major depressive disorder and obsessive-compulsive disorder

Question 34

what is the goal of preventable mental heath? and in what way(s) do prevention workers work towards achieving this goal?

Answer 34

to alleivate or control some sort of problem; prevention workers use either brain stimulation, simple lifestyle changes, or drugs

Question 35

compare and contrast the categories of biomedical theapies described, including the problem they aim to solve, and how they acomplish this

Answer 35

drug therapy: drugs brain stimulation: to treat depression using stimulation psychosurgery: lobotomys ## Footnote these can be solved through talking or drugs

Question 36

in what major way is psychotherapy different from biomedical therapies? what is the purpose of the "eclectric"

Answer 36

psychotherapy is talking it out and biomed therapys are taking drugs to solve your problems ## Footnote "eclectric" is an approach to psychotherapy that uses techniques from various forms of therapy

Question 37

who is known for developing the psychoanalytical approach, and what was the underlying premise it was based on? describe the primary goal techniques associated with psychoanalysis.

Answer 37

sigmund freud’s; it was based on the patient’s free associations( or saying whatever comes to mind) resistances, dreams, and transferences ; the main goal is for Energy release, conscious awareness of repressed feelings, Insights into origins of personal disorders and reduction of inner conflicts

Question 38

how did psychodynamic therapies develop? in what ways in this category simular and different from psychoanalysis?

Answer 38

they were influenced by Freud’s ideas; these are simular and different from psychoanalysis ## Footnote psychodynamic therapies tend to be shorter-term and more focused on present issues, whereas psychoanalysis involves longer-term exploration of deep-seated issues and relies heavily on the patient's free association.

Question 39

why are psychodynamic and humanistic therapies are also referred to as insight therapies?

Answer 39

seeks to reduce inner conflicts that interfere with natural development and growth and they're client-centered therapy, active listening, unconditional positive regard

Question 40

disscuss the primary goals assoicated with humanistic therpaies. in particular, idenitfy key components required for active listening. provide examples of these

Answer 40

emphazises potental for self improvement and seeks to reduce inner conflicts ## Footnote active listening requries paying attention, withhold judgement, reflect, clarify, summerize, and share

Question 41

how are behavior therapies diffrent from other psyhcological therapies, and what is their primary focus (in terms of goals and techquines)? how does operant conditioning play a role in behavioral therapy, and why is it often critizized. use a description of the "token company" in your answer.

Answer 41

behavior therapies use classical conditioning, assume behaviors are the problem, apply learning principles to eliminate unwanted behaviors. they use exposure therapies and aversive therapies. operant conditioning plays a role because it uses reinforcement and punishment. people can be rewarded with a "token"

Question 42

discussus how cognitive therapies incorperate thinking into goals, techniques, and assumptions about how we act emotionally.

Answer 42

teach people new, more adaptive ways of thinking, based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions

Question 43

how does cognitive behavioral therapy compare and contrast with other psychological therapies discussed?

Answer 43

cbt focuses on modifying current thoughts and behaviors, contrasting with therapies like psychoanalytic and humanistic approaches, focus on unconscious processes

Question 44

describe the primary benefits of group therapies (including family therpies

Answer 44

* Offers a social laboratory for exploring social behaviors and developing social skills * Enables people to see that others share their problems * Provides feedback as clients try out new ways of thinking

Question 45

in what ways are clients' perceptions and clinicians' perceptions of the effectiveness of of psychotherapy biased? regardless of peoples' perceptions, what does objective data of patient outcomes reavel about the effectiveness of therapies.

Answer 45

clients' perceptions of therapy effectiveness can be influenced by factors like their own expectations, while clinicians' perceptions may be biased by allegiance to a particular therapeutic approach. ## Footnote those not undergoing therapy often improve, but those undergoing therapy are more likely to improve—and to improve more quickly and with less risk of relapse

Question 46

what claims can we make about which psychotherpaies tend to work better than others?

Answer 46

no one type of psychotherapy is generally better than others

Question 47

why should we be cautious when interpretating evaluations of therapies from both supporters and critics?

Answer 47

different therapies work for different problems

Question 48

generally speaking, how can psychotherapy be helpful?

Answer 48

new perspective, hope, **therapeutic alliance**: empathic, trusting, caring relationship

Question 49

how might client-therapist mismatch develop? provide an example

Answer 49

psychotherapists differ from one another and may differ from their clients in matters of culture and values

Question 50

what are some indicators that it might be benefical for ones mental health to see out the services of a professonal therapist?

Answer 50

* feelings of hopelessness * deep and lasting depression * self-destructive behavior, such as substance abuse * thoughts of suicide

Question 51

what kind of things should we generally keep in mind and look out when selecting a therapist?

Answer 51

* seek preliminary consultation with several therapists * learn treatment approach and training * question the therapist’s values, credentials, and fees * look for indications of a potential therapeutic alliance

Question 52

how is the cerbal cortex organized? identify the 4 lobes of the cerbal cortex. where are they roughly located and what landmarks serve as effective visual borders between lobes/hemispheres?

Answer 52

cerberal hemispheres, cerberal cortex * frontal- top- front * parietal- top- back * occipital- back-bottom * temporal- in the middle the central sulcus serve as visual borders

Question 53

describe the motor cortex in detail. (e.g, where is it phyiscally located, what types of infomation is it repsonbile for, which direction does this infomation travel, and how do different parts of the body map onto this section of the cortex?)

Answer 53

Rear of **frontal** lobes (precentral gyrus) **sends** instructions for outgoing voluntary movements to muscles Body areas requiring precise control occupy the most cortical space; the right hemisphere controls the left side of the brain;

Question 54

describe the somatosensory cortex in detail. (e.g where is it phyiscally located, what types of infomation is it repsonbile for, which direction does this infomation travel, and how do different parts of the body map onto this section of the cortex?)

Answer 54

* Front of **parietal** lobes (postcentral gyrus) * **receives** incoming messages from skin senses and movement of body parts * body region with greater sensitivity occupy the most cortical space left hemisphere section recieves input from the body's right side

Question 55

what is the primary funcion of the visual cortex, and which lobe is it located in? what is the primary function of the auditory coretex, and which lobe is it located in?

Answer 55

visual receives input from eyes; sends information to other task-specialized areas (face identification, emotion detection, face recognition) in **occipital** lobes at brain back auditory cortex receives information from ears; circuitous route from one ear to the auditory receiving area above the other ear In **temporal** lobes at sides

Question 56

what are assoication areas? where are they located, and what is their primary function?

Answer 56

association areas: the cerebral cortex areas not involved in primary motor or sensory functions, found in all 4 lobes, and its function is that it is involved in higher mental functions

Question 57

how does our brain rely on the processes of nueroplasticity and neruogenesis to repsond to damage to the brain?

Answer 57

it helps us heal after a brain injury. neruogenesis is when new neurons may be produced, migrate elsewhere, and form connections

Question 58

what structure of the brain is servered in "split brain paitents"? and why has this been done in the past, and what are the results observed in these individuals afterwards?

Answer 58

corpus callosum; it is done to help seizures

Question 59

generally speaking, how do the left an right hemispheres of the brian differ from one another? in what ways are they simular?

Answer 59

**Right Hemisphere** Increased activity with perceptual tasks Modulates speech; allows for making inferences * Organizes self-awareness **Left Hemisphere** Math tasks Language control; quick, literal interpretations | Humans have unified brains with specialized parts

Question 60

distingush between the processess of sensation and perception. what do they have in common?

Answer 60

**sensation** is when our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus energies from our environment **Perception** is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information, enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events

Question 61

identify the absolute treshhold. how is this treshhold determined? provide an example of this. how do we describe stimuli that don't reach our absolute threshold?

Answer 61

the absoloute threshold is the minimum stimulus energy needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time for example, the smallest level of a tone that can be deteced by normal hearing when there are no other interfering sounds present

Question 62

what claim can we make about powerfully subiminal persausion influences our subsequent actions?

Answer 62

subiminal persuasion may produce a fleeting and subtle but not powerful or enduring effect on behavior

Question 63

describe the process of senstory adaptation. why is it useful for us on a day to day basis, and what does it enable us to be more senstive to?

Answer 63

Diminished sensitivity as a consequence of constant stimulation. this is useful because it aids focus by reducing background chatter

Question 64

describe how sensory adaption may be extended to "emotion adaptation"

Answer 64

hearing sad music can predispose people to perceive a sad meaning in spoken homophonic words—mourning rather than morning

Question 65

how do our expections (perceptual set) and/or the immedate context influence how we perceive our surroundings? provide an example

Answer 65

we often tend to notice only certain aspects of an object or situation while ignoring other details

Question 66

in what ways do our motivations, psycholocial needs, and emotions influence how we perceive our envrioment? provide one example

Answer 66

goal-directed desires can change the apparent size of goal-relevant objects

Question 67

what is the best way to describe where memories are stored?

Answer 67

everywhere around the brain

Question 68

indentify and define the two types of explicit/ declaritive, concious memory. provide an exmaple of each. what is the primary role of the hippocampus when it comes to explicit memories?

Answer 68

**Semantic memory**: Explicit memory of facts and general knowledge; your birthday is in may **Episodic memory**: Explicit memory of personally experienced events; tylers 21st birthday the hippocampus registers and temporarily holds elements of explicit memories before moving them to other brain regions for long-term storage

Question 69

what are the primary roles of the cerebellum and the basal gangila when it comes to implict memories?

Answer 69

The **cerebellum** plays an important role in forming and storing implicit memories created by classical conditioning The **basal ganglia**—deep brain structures involved in motor movement—facilitate formation of our procedural memories for skills

Question 70

decribe the process of memory formation starting with an episode of emotional arousal. how is the amygdala involed in this process?

Answer 70

Emotional arousal (excitement, stress): * Triggers (stress) hormone production * **Provokes the amygdala to engage memory** * Leads to activity in additional brain’s memory-forming areas

Question 71

describe long-term potentiation. how has studying the aplysia improved out understanding of this process?

Answer 71

long term potention is the process by which synaptic connections between neurons become stronger with frequent activation. experiments with Aplysia showed how synaptic connections strengthen

Question 72

what are revrevial cues and what is their purpose? at what time should retrevial cues be formed in order to produce the most effective retrevial of memories?

Answer 72

Retrieval cues serve as anchor points for pathways to memory. The best retrieval cues come from associations formed **at the time** a memory is encoded

Question 73

describe an example of how cues and context contribute to retreving/ recalling memories. how does our state of mind infleunce how our ability to revtreive/ recall memories?

Answer 73

Cues and contexts specific to a particular memory will be most effective in helping recall; if you studied for a test in a specific room, returning to that same room might make it easier to recall the information. emotions that accompany good or bad events become retrieval cues

Question 74

what is the serial postiton effect? in your answer, describe the phenomena known as recency effect and the primary effect.

Answer 74

our tendency to recall best the **last** (recency effect) and **first** (primacy effect) **items in a list**

Question 75

identify and define the features common to all languages, starting with the simpliest unit of speech and ending with the expression of a complete thought. how are semantics, syntax, pragmatics, and prosody related to these features?

Answer 75

every language has **phonemes**; basic speech sounds, **morphemes**; assembed phonemes, and **words**; assembled morphemes **semantics**; meanings, **syntax**; grammatical rules, **pragmatics**; context, and **prosody**; emotional tone

Question 76

what is a critical period? define the critical period for language development. what is the result of a lack of exposure to and practice with language with this time period?

Answer 76

a crticial period is the window in early-childhood to puberty where you learn a language, outside of this window language development is notable reduced

Question 77

what are some examples of how genetics influence language development?

Answer 77

FOXP2 is a specific gene that affects the acquistion of language; stuttering is partically heritable; chromosone 7 is assoicated with expressive language skills

Question 78

how do the idealogies of Chomsky differ from those of Ibboston, Tomasello, and others when it comes to language acquistion and development

Answer 78

chomsky claims language is a **unlearned human trait and grammar is universal** and ibboston and tamasello disagrees and claims **languages are too diverse for this univerial grammar concept to make sense** ## Footnote chomsky is more biologial focuses and ibboston is more socially focused

Question 79

generally speaking, how does language development progress from birth to the age of 2 and older? how is age assoicated with the mastery of a second language?

Answer 79

the older the age at immigration, the poorer the mastery of a second language. the younger you are the fast you can master a second language

Question 80

what is aphasia, and which areas of the brain is assoicated with producing different types of aphasia when damaged? describe the different types of aphasia present

Answer 80

**aphasia** is the damage to any of several cortical areas; damage to the **frontal lobe** can comprehend speech but can struggle with speech production; damage to the **left temporal lobe** can speak meaningless words and are unable to understand speech of others

Question 81

compare and contrast the ideas of lingustic determinsm and lingustic relativism

Answer 81

lingustic determinsm **determines** thoughts; the way we think lingustic relativism **influences but does not detmermine** the way we think

Question 82

provide an example of how the language were equipped with can directly infleunce how we perceive our surroundings

Answer 82

people may preceive things with different names as more different example: some langurages have different words for different colors