Final Exam Flashcards
1
Q
Relaxation of the heart is called
A
diastole
2
Q
Contraction of the heart is called
A
systole
3
Q
Why is diastolic blood pressure called the afterload
A
because it is the pressure in which the heart must work to eject blood during systole
4
Q
What hormone increases heart rate
A
norepinephrine (sympathetic innervation)
5
Q
What hormone decreases heart rate
A
acetylcholine (parasympathetic innervation)
6
Q
What hormone strengthens heart contractions
A
epinephrine
7
Q
What is the equation for max heart rate
A
max HR = 220-age
8
Q
What is the relation between exercise and cardiac output
A
the greater intensity of the exercise, the greater the cardiac output
9
Q
What 3 contributors propagate electrical signalling
A
nodes
nerves
intercalated discs
10
Q
What is the hearts natural pacemaker
A
the sinoatrial node (SA node)
11
Q
What are the nodes of the heart involve in electrical signal conduction
A
sinoatrial node
atrioventricular node
12
Q
What are the nerves involved in electrical signal conduction
A
bundle of His
bundle branches
purkinje fibres
13
Q
What are intercalated discs
A
gap junctions in cardiac muscle
14
Q
What is the term for muscle of the heart
A
cardiomyocytes
15
Q
Cardiomyocytes, connected by intercalated discs, work together how
A
work together as a single functional unit (the heart as a whole is one functional unit)
16
Q
What is the common occurrence in miscommunication in the heart
A
arrhythmia
17
Q
What does abnormal SA node firing cause
A
tachycardia or bradycardia
18
Q
What is tachycardia
A
too fast
19
Q
What is bradycardia
A
too slow
20
Q
What is a fibrillation
A
when the cells depolarize independently
21
Q
What is atrial fibrillation
A
quivering or irregular heartbeat (arrhythmia)
ventricles can still act independently here
22
Q
What is ventricular fibrillation
A
ventricles cannot send oxygen rich blood to body - the most serious cardiac rhythm disturbance
23
Q
What is atherosclerosis
A
blockage of arteries due to plaque buildup
24
Q
What causes atherosclerosis and plaque build up
A
elevated blood lipids, high saturated fat intake, etc.
25
What is an angioplasty
balloon is inserted into the artery to place a stent that holds the arterial wall open
26
What is a bypass surgery
when an artery/vein is taken from another place in the body and inserted in problem area to act as a bypass pathway for blood to travel where it needs to go
27
What is hypertrophy
enlargement of the heart - sign of being overworked
28
What is the bad aspect of hypertrophy
causes high blood pressure and narrowing of aortic valve
29
What is the good aspect of hypertrophy
athletes heart: good adaptation!
30
Where is maximum pressure observed in the heart
systolic pressure
31
Where is minimum pressure observed in the heart
diastolic pressure
32
What is vasoconstriction
when the diameter is restricted (higher pressure)
33
What is vasodilation
when the diameter is lessened (lower pressure)
34
How is vasoconstriction started
there are alpha receptors located on arteries
- norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to a2 adrenergic receptors
35
How is vasodilation started
there are beta receptors located on arteries
- norepinephrine and epinephrine bind to b2 adrenergic receptors
36
Does blood pressure increase/decrease significantly during exercise
no
37
Does blood pressure increase/decrease significantly in resistance exercise
yes, holding your breath during resistance exercise increase intrathoracic pressure during the lift, increasing heart rate
38
What is the general order of the GI tract
oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon (large intestine), rectum
39
What are Peyers patches
special populations of T cells localized to the intestinal mucosa
40
What sphincter separates the mouth and the esophagus
upper esophageal sphincter
41
What sphincter separates the esophagus and the stomach
lower esophageal sphincter
42
What sphincter separates the stomach and the small intestine
pyloric sphincter
43
What sphincter seperates the small intestine and the large intestine
ileocecal valve
44
What sphincter seperates the large intestine and the rectum
anal sphincter
45
How long is the GI tract in ft
28 ft long (folded extensively)
46
How much time does food spend digesting in the GI tract as a whole
30-80h
47
Why is the GI tract able to absorb so much
large luminal surface area due to villi and microvilli
48
How much time does food spend digesting in the stomach/small intestine
5-8h
49
How much time does food spend digesting in the colon
the rest of the time after the 5-8 spent in the stomach/small intestine
50
What is the bacteria housed by the GI tract called
gut microbiome
51
What is the function of the gut microbiome
protects against pathogenic microbes that enter the tract
52
What nervous system branch controls the GI tract
intrinsic nervous system (enteric)
autosomal - cannot be controlled
53
What are the 4 main processes of the GI tract
motility, secretion, digestion, and absorption
54
What is motility in reference to the GI tract
peristalsis - movement of food
55
What is secretion in reference to the GI tract
saliva, mucous, antibodies, digestive enzymes, bile, bicarbonate
56
What is digestion in reference to the GI tract
breakdown of large molecules into small molecules
57
What is absorption in reference to the GI tract
uptake of water and nutrients
58
What does the "cephalic" phase of digestion refer to
relating to the head - digestion of the oral cavity
59
What types of digestion occur in cephalic digestion
chemical and mechanical
60
What is mastication
chewing
61
What prepare the GI tract for food processing
sensory stimuli (ie. sight, smell, taste) cause secretions
62
What nervous systems stimulate the secretion of salvia (think autonomic control)
sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems
63
What is the purpose of saliva
soften and lubricate food
provide enzymes
64
What two macronutrient classes begin digestion in the mouth (and which one does not)
fats and carbs (proteins do not)
65
What salivary enzyme begins breakdown of carbs in the mouth
amylase
66
What salivary enzyme begins breakdown of fats in the mouth
lipase
67
What is the role of the sympathetic nervous system in relation to salvia secretion
inhibition of gastric activity = less digestion happening
68
What is the role of the parasympathetic nervous system in relation to saliva secretion
stimulation of digestive activity = more digestion
69
What is the "gastric" phase referring to
in the stomach
70
What two macronutrient classes are partially broken down in the stomach (and which is not)
fats and proteins
(carbs are not)
71
Levels of what hormone spike after digestion of food
acetylcholine
72
Why is a spike in acetylcholine levels seen after intake of food
chief cells are activated, secreting pepsin and gastric lipase, which in turn causes the release of acetylcholine for digestion
- acetylcholine is also released as a result of other cell activations, but that is less of a focus here
73
What is the function of pepsin
break down protein in the stomach
74
What is the function of gastric lipase
break down fats in the stomach
75
What is the main contributor of digestive enzymes for digestion in the small intestine
the pancreas
76
Enzymes are released from the pancreas in their active or inactive form?
inactive
77
Where are enzymes secreted by the pancreas activated
the small intestine
78
Where is bile made
the liver
79
Where is bile stored
gallbladder
80
What is bile needed for
lipid digestion
81
What is the order of the 3 sections of the small intestine
duodenum, jejunum, ileum
82
What is the food being digested called by the time it has reached the small intestine
chyme
83
What is secreted into the duodenum as a result of chyme entering the small intestine via the pyloric sphincter
bicarbonate (from cells in intestinal epithelium and pancreatic secretions)
digestive enzymes (from pancreas)
bile acids (from liver/gallbladder)
84
What digestive enzymes are anchored to the luminal surface of the small intestine
disaccharides (breaks down carbs)
amino peptidases (breaks down proteins)
85
What is the basic function of carb metabolism
carbs come in, and broken down via specific enzymes, transported across the brush border, and then transported across the basolateral membrane by facilitated diffusion to enter bloodstream
86
What type of transport is used in carb metabolism
active and facilitated
87
What occurs in someone who is lactose intolerant (why can't they digest lactose)
deficient in the lactase enzyme required to break down lactose
88
What occurs in someone who is celiac
breakdown/flattening of brush border occurs when taking in gluten, which in turn can lead to a deficiency in the lactase enzyme (lactose intolerance)
- treatment of the celiac disease can in turn cure the lactose intolerance because the brush border is restored and proper lactase enzyme amounts are seen
89
What monosaccharides require ATP for transport (active transport)
glucose and galactose
90
What monosaccharides do not require ATP for transport (facilitated transport)
fructose
91
What is the basic mechanism of protein digestion
proteins are broken down into smaller peptides, peptidases are secreted to break peptides into amino acids, and the amino acids are transported throughout the body via the bloodstream
92
What type of transport is seen in protein metabolism
cotransport
93
What is transcytosis and when is it seen
when small peptides in protein digestion are carried intact across the membrane
94
Bile salts are ____________________
amphipathic
95
What does it mean to be amphipathic
both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
96
Chyme entering the duodenum triggers release of ___________ from the gallbladder
bile
97
Triglycerides are broken down into what two molecules in fat digestion
monoglycerides (still holds glycerol backbone) and fatty acids (no backbone)
98
What formation do fatty acids/monoglycerides take in fat digestion
micelles
99
What is the function of micelles
help absorb fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
100
What is the basic mechanism of fat digestion once triglycerides have been broken down
fatty acids and monoglycerides are absorbed across the brush border and reassembled as triglycerides to be packaged as chylomicrons (type of lipoprotein) where they are then absorbed into the lymphatic system
101
Why are chylomicrons not absorbed directly into the bloodstream, and absorbed into the lymphatic system instead
because chylomicrons are too large to cross the capillary wall, so they are absorbed into lymphatic system and transported to the thoracic duct to be entered into the bloodstream
102
Where does the majority of water absorption occur in digestion
the colon
103
What comes in from the ileum to the colon in terms of digestible material
ileal chyme (chemical and particle rich liquid)
104
Ileal chyme has ________________ characteristics
microbial
105
What is absorbed in the colon
water and simple ions like potassium, sodium, magnesium and calcium
106
What is fermentation in the colon
when resident microbes digest and absorb the chemicals they can
107
What are the end products of fermentation
short chain fatty acids
108
What vitamins are produced as byproducts of metabolism by resident microbes in the colon
vitamins K and some B
109
What is hedonic hunger
the drive to eat that is pleasure based
110
What is homeostatic hunger
the drive to eat that is survival based
111
Is hedonic hunger healthy?
yes, a certain level of hedonic hunger is considered healthy in terms of eating habits
112
How is energy defined
the capacity to do work
113
What is the energy currency of the cell
ATP (adenosine triphosphate)
114
Which types of metabolism generate the most ATP
glucose and fatty acid metabolism
115
Glycolysis, beta oxidation an TCA cycle produce reducing equivalents called....
NADH and FADH2
116
What is the function of NADH and FADH2
supply protons to the electron transport chain
117
How is ATP generated without oxygen
phosphocreatine degradation
118
In anaerobic conditions, ATP is produced by glycolysis to form what end product
lactate
119
What is most fat energy stored as in the body
triglycerides
120
Where are triglycerides stored
adipose tissue
121
What is the main storage of carbs in the body
glycogen
122
Where is the most concentrated storage of glycogen
the liver
- small organ, lots of glycogen
123
Where is the most amount of glycogen stored
muscle tissue
- much larger tissue across the body, able to store more (still not most concentrated storage form though)
124
When would protein be broken down for energy
if all carb and fat stores have been broken down and the body is in a state of starvation
125
What are the pros of using carbs as fuel
- can generate ATP faster than fat
- can generate ATP anaerobically
126
What are the cons of using carbs as fuel
- hold a lot of water (less energy dense)
127
What are the pros of using fats as fuel
- don't hold as much water as carbs, so they are more than twice as energy dense
- most abundant energy reserve
128
What are the cons of using fats as fuel
- can't provide energy anaerobically
129
In the first 3-4 hours after a meal, energy nutrients are stored, otherwise known as _______________
anabolism
130
What is anabolic state
not long after a meal when energy is being stored in the body (built up)
131
In a fasting state, stored energy is broken down, otherwise known as ________________
catabolism
132
What is catabolic state
in a fasting state when stored energy is needed to be broken down and used
133
What is gluconeogenesis
making glucose from non carbohydrate precursors
134
Where is the main site of gluconeogensis
liver (but can also occur in the kidneys)
135
What is the point of gluconeogensis
the compensate for lack of glucose intake in a fasting state (catabolism)
136
What is hyperglycaemia
too high blood sugar
137
What is hypoglycaemia
too low blood sugar
138
Is blood sugar levels a narrow or wide numerical range
very narrow
139
Increase in glucose results in what related to insulin
increase in insulin
140
Increase in glucose results in what related to glucagon
decrease in glucagon
141
Glucose regulation via insulin and glucagon are examples of what kind of feedback loop
negative feedback loops
142
In low intensity exercise (ie walking) what source of energy is used
mainly blood glucose and fatty acids (some muscle triglycerides and glycogen)
143
In moderate to high intensity exercise (ie. cycling) what source of energy is used
mainly muscle triglycerides and glycogen (some blood glucose and fatty acids)
144
In very high intensity exercise (ie. sprinting) what source of energy is used
muscle glycogen and phosphocreatine (anaerobic)
145
What is the most frequent source for polymorphic change
SNPs (single nucleotide polymorphisms)
146
How does genetic variation occur in things such as metabolism
depending on your genotype, you may be able to metabolize certain things quickly, moderately, or really slowly
*genetic variation (variation in genotype)*
147
What is the ratio of nucleotides affected by SNPs
1 in 300
148
Aging is related to an increase in ___________________ ______________
inflammatory cytokines
149
Why are inflammatory cytokines related to aging
they promote inflammation, leading to disease (comes with aging)
150
What is a polymorphism
a DNA sequence variation that is common in the population
151
What does it mean for a SNP to be common
occurs in more than 5% of people
152
Where does damage occur 10x more frequently when compared to damage occurring in the nuclear genome
the mitochondria
153
Why does damage occur at such a higher rate in the mitochondria
due to generation of reactive oxygen species - highly reactive chemical species containing oxygen
154
What is the function of DNA poly gamma
proofread and repair damage in mitochondria DNA
155
Why is it important to maintain function of DNA poly gamma
need it to be effective to minimize the occurrence of damage and error
156
With aging, DNA poly gamma functions...
less effectively
157
With more cell death, what happens to aging
aging progresses
158
What is the overall relationship between mutated DNA gamma and increases exercise
those with less effective DNA gamma are seen to have lower brain and muscle weight, however with the incorporation of exercise the mutate individuals see an increase in both, comparable to normal levels
159
What is the overall take away considering aging and exercise as related topics
aging results from lowered DNA poly gamma function, but with exercise the effects are very much reduced, in turn reducing the effect of aging
