Final Exam Flashcards
Heavy Chain
Part of the antibody structure, has more amino acids and held my covalent bonds
Light chain
part of the antibody structure, smaller/less amino acids, held by covalent bonds
Constant region
Part of the antibody structure that remains the same, determines the antibody class
Variable region
The region that is different on the antibody that determines the specificity
Antibody specificity
what specific epitope is there that will allow the one antigen to bind to the antibody
Immunological tolerance
destroy the ones that could cause autoimmunity, random variable regions may make anti-self antibodies
use tolerance, deletion, anergy, and peripheral tolerance
only B-cells binding non-self survive & function
if B-cells can tolerate their own cells
Clonal deletion
B-cells bind before antigens present –> apoptosis
Is getting rid of everything that is not tolerant
Clonal anergy
B-cells bind before antigen present lose function
risk that it could become active again and give autoimmune
may stimulate but lose ability to respond
Peripheral tolerance
B-cells binds without T-helper cells –> apoptosis
if it doesn’t receive the second signal it will die (shut down)
Fc
Constant region on protein
IgD
only found on B-lymphocytes
Monomeric B-cell antigen receptor
held in a plasma membrane with a pointy side out, change shape will activate the cell
they are never secreted, when it binds to matching antigen it will activate cell, they will then divide to give memory & plasma cell clones
IgM
deals with blood type (ABO)
monomer in the B-cell membrane acts as an antigen receptor
like IgD when antigen binds it activates B-cell
IgM is secreted as a pentamer, 1st antibody in primary response, includes anti-ABO antibodies, can’t cross placenta (too big), does not give passive immunity
IgG
main blood antibody 80% of antibodies
whorks by neutrilizing toxins & opsonization
major antibody of late primary & secondary responses
monomer that includes anti-Rh antibodies
cross placenta to provide fetus/newborn immunity
IgA
13% of antibodies
dimer, secreted in mucus, milk, tears, saliva
IgE
0.002%
antibody of allergy & antiparasitic activity
monomer, signals basophils & mast cells to stimulate inflammation
Activation
Antigen binds B-cell membrane IgM or IgD recptor
the B-cell phagocytoses surface antibody w/ its antigen
then it will display and digest fragments on surface MHC-II
Memory cell
plasma cells that turn into memory cells for later
Neutralize
cover toxins & virus binding sites
keeps virus form getting into cell, blocking from moving forward
Complement
Precipitate
bind over and over by cross linking with antibodies they will get bigger until they fall out of solution
Primary response
slow, since few responsive cells ready
Secondary response
rapid since menay memory cells
Active immunity
you own cells responding & secreting antibody
Passive immunity
others antibodies from breast feeding milk, covalescent plasma, RhoGam
Natural immunity
w/out medical intervention
Artificial immunity
intentionally introduced in medical context
Convalescent plasma
plasma that comes from people who have recovered from an infection
Conducting zone
transports air in & out of lungs
nostrals, mouth, throat
Respiratory Zone
for gas exchange deep in the lungs
Mucosa
Epithelium at lumen & arelar tissue
humidifies inhaled air, captures dust & microbes w/ mucus
Lamina propria
areolar connective tissue underneath
Goblet cell
unicellular mucus glands in epithelum
Submucosa
dense irrebular fibrous C.T deep to laminal propria
Mucus gland
multicellular with ducts to lumen
Serous gland
bactericidal, dissolve odorant (chemical you can smell), humidify air
Odorant
chemical you can smell
Concha
superior, middle & inferior (turbinates)
causes tubulence, forcing air across mucosa
improves warming & moistening air & trapping microbes
Paranasal sinus
Frontal sinus
Maxillary sinus
Sphenoid sinus
Ethmoid air cell
Pharynx
Nasopharynx
Eustachian (Auditory) tube
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Larynx
Glottis
Vocal cord
Epiglottis
Trachea
Tracheal cartilage
Trachealis
muscle that is going to close the posterior side by the esophagus
Primary bronchus
secondary (lobar) bronchus
Lobe
Tertiary bronchus
Segment
Bronchiole
after tertiary bronchus
to lobules, less and less cartilage until none is left and only muscles to control constiction
Terminal bronchiole
Respiratory bronchiole
start of gas exhange beause of simple squamous epithelium
Alveolar duct
After the respiratory brochioles continuation of gas exchange
Alveolar sac
last part in the respiratory zone where gas exchange occurs
Respiratory membrane
type 1 cells + capillary endothelium
makes it easy to exchange gas
Surfactant
secreated by type II cells and is used to keep the alveoli from colapsing by reducing surface tension
Type I alveolar cell
part of the respiratory membrane
are squamous & have an epithilum to prevent bubbles
Type II alveolar cell
are Cuboidal that make surfactan
Alveolar macrophage
clean up any dust that has gotten throught the rest of the system
immune system cell (dust cell)
Dust cell
Alveolar macrophage
Hilum
site where bronchi, vasculature nerves enter the lungs
Apex
base of the lungs
shape is molded with the diaphragm
Base
part of apex
Costal
along the ribs
Mediastinal
middle of the chest
Cardiac notch
heart and the lungs meet
on the left
Bronchial tree
Primary, secondary, tertiary, bronchioles, terminal bronchioes
Fissure
separate 2 lobes on the left 3 lobes on the right
Pulmonary circuit
Pulmonary plexus
enter hilum & follows tree
Bronchoconstriction
done by parasympathetic nervous system
from cranial X used vegus nerve
Bronchodilation
sympathetic by thoracic chain ganglia
fight or flight, need more O2 or use more O2 want to increase flow and decrease resistance
Pleura
each of a pair of serous membranes lining the thorax
Serous membrane
similar to pericardium, that is sealed, lungs are embedded, is a simple squamous epithilium & areolar tissue
parietal & visceral pleura
Parietal pleura
closes to the skin
Visceral pleura
closest to the lungs
Pleural cavity
the cavity of which the serous membrane holds the lungs
full of fluid, adhesive pleural fluid to prevent friction and allow control of movement
Pleural fluid
is used to prevent friction adn allow control of movement
Atmospheric pressure
Patm
Intra-alveolar pressure
Palv
changes with chest volume
pressure in alveoli sacs, pressure decrease force into lungs pressure increase force out
Intrapleural pressure
Pip
should always be less than the pressure in our lungs Pip<Palv
Respiratory cycle
the process of breating in and out
Eupnea
relaxed breathing
driven by changing chest volume causing Palv to change
External intercostals
muscles, diaphragm increase volume, decrease Palv inhale
recoil by lung & diaphrame elsasticity decrease volume, increase Palv (exhale)
Hyperpnea
forced breathing
uses external intercostals, scalenes, internal intercostals, abdominals
Internal intercostals
pulls ribs down, decreasing volume, increase Palv exhale
Abdominal muscles
push the diaphragm up decrease volume, increase Palv exhale
Tidal volume
1/2 liter air, in or out in resting breath
stop contracting external intercostals and go back to resting
first part of graph
Inspiratory reserve volume
breath normal then how much more can you get in with effort (large spike up on graph)
Expiratory reserve volume
extra exhaled w/ effort
how much you can get out
Residual volume
amount left after greatest expiration
Inspiratory capacity
tital + inspiratory reserve volume
Vital capacity
inspiratory capacity + expiratery reserve
Functional residual capacity
residual + expiratory volume
Total lung capacity
vital + residual volume
Anatomical dead space
air left in conducting zone
too thick of walls for gas exchange
Alveolar dead space
where gas can’t exhange in respiratory zone (alveoli) because of mucus
Physiological dead space
alveolar dead space
Total dead space
anatomical + phiological (alveolar) dead space
Central chemoreceptors
Carotid bodies
Aortic bodies
Medullary respiratory center
stimulates respiratory muscles settign difalt rhythms
have the dorsal respiratory gorup and ventral respiratory gourp
Dorsal respiratory group
in medulla for eupnea mucles
diaphragm, maybe external mucles
Ventral respiratory group
in medulla for hyperpnea
abdominal & internal intercostals
Pontine respiratory group
regulate rate & depth through input to medullary centers
Apneustic center
affects depth of breaths
Pneumotaxic center
affects respiratory rate
Partial pressure
fraction of air pressure due to each gas: N2, O2, CO2, H2O
PCO2
partialpressure
PO2
Ventilation
Air flow into alveoli
Perfusion
blood flow to alveolar capillaries
Coupling
Cellular respiration
External respiration
pulmonary system
In lungs, exchange of blood gases with air
Pco2 blood > Pco2 alv 46>40
Co2 diffuses to alveolus
Po2alv > Po2 blood 100>40
O2 diffuses to blood
Internal respiration
In the systemic tissues
gas exchange from capillaries to tissues
Pco2 tissues > Pco2 blood 50>40
CO2 diffues into the blood
Po2 blood > Po2 tissues 100>10
O2 diffues into the tissues
Oxyhemoglobin
transports O2 is the 98%
attached to hemoglobin molecules
Heme
Hemoglobin saturation
% all RBC’s O2 capacity filled is the hemoglobin saturation
total amount of hemes holding O2
Dissociation curve
S-shape curve becuase of PO2 vs hemoglobin saturation
more O2 used the faster O2 is freed form hb
Cooperative binding
each O2 on makes next easier to add
one changes then then next and the next
Right shift
hb is not able to hold onto the O2 as much (unloads faster)
Left shift
Hold onto oxygen better
Bohr effect
Right shift, hb unloads more O2 at high acidity
pH decrease more co2 in the body going to unload o2 faster to balance out
Growth hormone
affects the hormone dissociation, right shift because more aerobic respiration, to grow the body
Thyroid
raise metabolism, which will shift right bc need more oxygen
Thyroid hormones
Testosterone
grow skeletal muscles, right shift need more O2 unload faster
Epinephrine
increase heart rate, right shift, fight or flight need more O2
1,3-Bis(Di)phosphoglycerate
2,3-(Di)phosphoglycerate
Glycolysis
Alpha-globin
what are in adult hemoglobin
Beta-globin
Expression pattern
change as embryo to fetus to child
is a left shift because baby needs to hold onto moms O2 better
Carbaminohemoglobin
Co2 attached to a peptide bond
>20% of co2 is carried this way
Haldane effect
Hb co2 affinity increases w/out O2
when have no O2 can carry more Co2
Bicarbonate
Co2 is majority 70% carried in the plasma as bicarbonate, done by using carbonic anhydrase to convert Co2 with H2O to bicarbonate, that can be easily carried in the plasm
use Cl- to trade with Bicarbonate
Carbonic anhydrase
used in RBC’s to convert co2 to bicarbonate
Chloride shift
When bicarbonate is made in the RBC it is a neg charge, can’t leave because is larger needs to leave through a protien channel. Have to set neg right, use a Cl- ion to move into the RBC as bicarbonate leaves
Digestion
break macromolecules down to monomers/sub-units
Absorption
move from cavity to bodily fluids
vitamins, salts&minerals, Water, digested materials
Microbiome
our own microbes that help give us vitamins and help immune functions
Alimentary canal
digestive tract (GI)
Gastrointestinal tract
Alimentarycanal
Small intestine
Finish digestion, absorption
Large intestine (Colon)
host of the microbiome, where we have water & vitamins reabsorption
Accessory organ
Salivary glands, liver, gall blader, pancreas
Exocrine gland
secret in a duct are the Gall baldder, pancreas releases bicarbonate as an exocrine gland
Endocrine gland
hormones secreted in the blood stream. pancreas does this for glucose control
Salivary glands
start the break down of carbohydrates and secrete lipase (used in the stomach to break down lipids)
Amylase
secreted by salivary glands, break down carbs
Lipase
breaks down lipids in the stomach
Gall bladder
bile storage & concentration
where extra bile is stored for when needed to digest lipids
Pancreas
digestiveenzymes, bicarbonate, glucose control
many enzyme found in SI is from pancreas
GALT
gut associated lymphoid tissue
Muscularis mucosa
smooth muscle
Duodenum
start of the small intestine
has part of the submucosa
Muscularis externa
Inner & outer layer
Inner: circular
Outer: longitudinal
helps to mix and churn the food
Submucosa
dense irregular fibrous connective tissue
blood & lymphatic vessels, nerve plexus
multicellular mucus glands in esophagus & duodenum
Adventitia
fibrous connective tissue on the back wall
no epithelium
Serosa
areolar tissue & simple squamous epithelium
found in organs hanging from the back wall of the cavity
Enteric system
self-contained in digestive system with little CNS input
Submucosal plexus
controls glandular secretions
relase of gastric or mucus
Myenteric plexus
b/w muscularis externa layers: movement
control the muscle movement
Serous membrane
Visceral peritoneum
Parietal peritoneum
Peritoneal cavity
Peritoneal fluid
Transverse colon
Sigmoid colon
Ascending colon
Descending colon
Rectum
Mesentery
Mesocolon
Greater omentum
Lesser omentum
Falciform ligament
Intraperitoneal
Retroperitoneal
Propulsion
Peristalsis
Mechanical digestion
Mastication
Churning
Chyme
Segmentation
Emulsification
Bile salts
Chemical digestion
Hydrolysis
Amylase
Pepsin
Brush border
NSAID
Lacteal
Short (intrinsic) reflex
Long (extrinsic) reflex
Exteroceptors
Enteroendocrine cell
Gastric gland
Gastrin
Parietal cell
Secretin
Pancreatic duct cell
Cholecystokinin
Acinus
Excrete
Nitrogenous waste
Electrolyte
Erythropoietin
Vitamin D
Gluconeogenesis
Lactate
Fermentation
Glycerol
Fatty acid
