Exam 1 Flashcards
Metabolic waste
breakdown proteins, DNA or RNA (nitrogen)
waste gets carried to kidneys
Hormone
a chemical used for communication, of an organ, that travels through the blood to affect another organ.
Homeostasis
Blood volume affecting blood pressure
Osmotic balance
hemostasis
Temperature
Osmotic balance
affecting cell volume, blood pressure
amount of water/material entering and exiting
Hemostasis
keeping blood volume from dropping
blood clotting
Formed element
cells or pieces of cells
subcategories are RBC, WBC, and Platelets
Red blood cell
transport gases, O2 also carries CO2 to and from lungs & tissues
What are the three names of an RBC
Red blood cells
RBC’s
Erythroeytes
Erythrocyte
Red blood cell. Transports nutrients. Especially gas.
White blood cell
Leukocyte. Inflammation and infection
Leukocyte
White blood cell. Inflammation and infection
WBC
White blood cell, leukocyte. Inflammation and infection
Platelet
Thrombocyte. What clots blood.
Thrombocyte
Platelet. What clots blood.
Plasma
The non-formed element of blood. 90% water, 10% solutes. About 55% of a blood sample when spun down.
Serum
Plasma without clot forming protein
Albumin
Smallest on the “globulin” scale. A colloid. A liver protein used to bring osmotic balance, fatty acid and steroid transport. Transports “hydrophobic elements”
Osmotic balance
affecting cell volume, venous return, BP
amount of water/ material entering and exiting the cell
Fatty acid
Fatty acids are the building blocks of the fat in our bodies and in the food we eat
Steroid
any of a group of hormones that belong to the class of chemical compounds known as steroids
Alpha-globulin
enzymes that transport iron (Fe2+), lipids, vitamins (hydrophobic)
Beta-globulin
Same as alpha but are also fibrinogen
Fibrinogen
part of the beta globulins are soluble, unpolymerized clotting proteins.
In the beta globulins, the clotting protein (fibrin) in serum gets taken out
take fibrin out and have serum, gen is the beginning so when the end is taken out just have the start.
Gamma-globulin
Immunoglobulin. Ig’s, antibodies
from WBC’s, salt minerals (Zn,Mg,Mn) form dietary absorption, bones (Ca2+), and liver (stores iron & sugars)
Antibody
An antibody, also known as an immunoglobulin, is a large, Y-shaped protein used by the immune system (gamma globulins)
Immunoglobulin
a different name for an antibody (gamma globulins)
Adipose
Fat cells
Amino acid
amino nitrogen-containing, a portion of a C-H-containing molecule
building blocks of a protein
Nucleotides
The basic structural unit of nucleic acids like DNA
Endocrine
something (inside the body) that secretes hormones into the blood to affect another organ
is an organ that makes hormones to act on other organs
Hematocrit
packed cell volume, PCV
Hema (red) to (cell), crit (count)
In a centrifuge, the RBC ends up on the bottom will all the formed elements. the plasma is on the top. take the total amount divided by the packed volume at the bottom
Packed cell volume
the amount of red blood cells and formed elements in the blood. another name for hematocrit
PCV
Packed cell volume
Buffy coat
What separates plasma from clotted RBCs in a sample
Centrifuge
A device that spins down and separates samples
Viscosity
Thickness of a liquid
What is transported in the blood?
O2, CO2, salts minerals, hormones, fatty acids, lipids, vitamins, iron
along with other waste products
What does the blood hold constant?
what is the relationship between Osmotic balance and blood volume?
osmotic balance can affect blood pressure which has to deal with the amount of volume of blood. therefore the amount of blood going in and out of the heart depends on the osmotic balance.
what is the relationship between blood volume and blood pressure
When blood volume increases, it expands your arteries and veins and leads to increased blood pressure.
what is the relationship between osmotic balance and cell volumes?
the amount of material entering or exiting the cell depends on the volume in that cell
cells regulate internal volume in response to osmotic stress
list the three classes of formed elements
Red blood cells, White blood cells, Platelets
- Alternative name & function (Red blood cells)
RBC’s, erythrocytes
Transport gases
O2 & CO2 to and from lungs & tissues
- Alternate names & function (White blood cells)
WBC’s, leukocytes
some role in immunity and inflammation (tissue damage, infection)
- Alternate names and function (platelets
thrombocytes (blood clots)
not full cells, used for clotting
what is the difference between homeostasis & hemostasis?
homeostasis is to place the body in conditions for optimal functioning. while hemostasis keeps the blood volume from dropping to low. (it is a subset of homeostasis)
what is the difference between serum and plasma?
the serum is plasma without clot-forming proteins. centrifuge the clotting proteins will go to the bottom and the serum will stay at the top. Serum is a subset of plasma
what criterion is used to distinguish between alpha- beta- and gamma-globulins
What the globulins carry and how large they are
small (albumin, alpha, beta (fibrinogen), gamma) large
alpha: enzymes (Fe, lipids, vitamins, things that are hydrophobic)
beta: enzymes (soluble, unpolymerized clotting protein, fibrinogen)
Gamma: antibodies, immunoglobulins (salt & minerals from dietary absorption, bones, liver
what does hematocrit indicate
hematocrit indicates the red blood cell count
How is hematocrit measured
measured by centrifuging blood and dividing the total volume (plasma + buffy coat + hematocrit) by the hematocrit
what is the normal range of hematocrit
the normal range of RBC by volume in whole blood is 37-52%
what determines blood viscosity?
how the blood flows through the body (the resistance of flow specifically), thickness, gooiness, syrupiness (honey, syrup)
What are the risks of high blood viscosity?
high viscosity leads to high blood pressure & high hematocrit
Plasma components from the liver & function
the majority of proteins are made in the liver. a lot of those proteins are clotting proteins
Plasma components from the white blood cells & function
Albumin, antibodies, immunoglobulins, platelets
In the buffy coat
Plasma components from the endocrine organs & function
different hormones to affect different organs and systems
Plasma components from the digestive system & function
Plasma components from the bones & function
Plasma components from the respiring cells & function
Plasma components from the lungs & function
Plasma components from the fat cells & function
How does hematocrit numbers, blood viscosity, and blood pressure impact each other?
When one increases, the other increases.
+ Hematocrit = + Viscosity
+ Viscosity = + BP
+ BP = + Hematocrit
Hematopoiesis
Growth of red blood cells
Yolk sac
helps form blood and small cells
Aorta
major artery in the human body
Extramedullary
the production of blood cells outside of the bone marrow (not an adequate production of blood cells)
Femur
holds bone marrow and is a long bone
Humerus
holds bone marrow
Red bone marrow
This type of bone marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells, which are the stem cells that form blood cells
Stem cell
Unspecialized cells that can specialize in times of need
Differentiation
Cells that have a specialized purpose
Hematopoietic stem cell
slightly Specialized stem cells that form blood cells
Hemocytoblast
Immature red blood cells
Lymphoid stem cells
stem cells that will form B and T cells and are terminally differentiated
Lymphoid cells are pluripotent
Lymphocytes
a type of white blood cell that is part of the immune system
finish their differentiation in the thymus
Myeloid stem cells
will form granulocytes some phagocytes and RBC’s
Myeloid cells are pluripotent
Thymus
where some stem cells go to finish differentiation
What is the average life span of erythrocytes
~4 months
What is the average life span of Leukocytes
~ 2-3 weeks
What is the average life span of Thrombocytes
~ 1 week
What is the difference between stem cell & hematopoietic stem cell
SC: unspecialised cell that divides rapidly
HemSC: slightly specialized, will only make blood cells
What is the difference between Lymphoid and myeloid progenitors
Ly: give rise to B& T cells
My: give rise to granulocytes, phagocytes, RBC’s
Where is red bone marrow most commonly found in adults
Skull, vertebrae, Pelvis, Femur, Humerus
List in chronological order the tissues and organs that give rise to blood cells over the course of a lifetime?
start in yolk sac, get a bit more specific
aorta: in this stage is near kidneys & gonads
then to the liver and spleen (if these organs can still produce RBC’s as an adult it is called extramedullary hematopoiesis
bone marrow (skull, vertebrae, pelvis, femur, humerus)
Cytoskeleton
network of protein filaments and tubules in the cytoplasm, giving them shape
Ribosome
Ribosomes are used for protein synthesis, they link amino acid together
Mitochondrion
hehe powerhouse of the cell
used for aerobic respiration to bring energy to the cell
Aerobic respiration
the use of oxygen to get energy in the form of ATP
O2 + glucose –> CO2 + H2O (ADP –> ATP)
Anaerobic respiration
no oxygen is used glucose is turned into ethanol or lactic acid
lactic acid we make as a waste product
Fermentation
he chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving effervescence and the giving off of heat.
Carbonic anhydrase
anhydrase is without water enzyme
it is the process of CO2 in the blood turning into Bicarbonate
H2O + CO2 <–> H2CO3 <–> H+ + HCO3- (goes both directions)
Bicarbonate
H2CO3
dissolves in plasma better, increasing CO2 transport
Globin
there are 4 globin polypeptides in a hemoglobin
2 alpha and 2 beta
Alpha Globin
Subunits of the large protein hemoglobin
Beta globin
subunits of the large protein hemoglobin
Heme
is the disc held by Globin
is the organic ring cofactor on globin
the cell can’t carry O2 or CO2 without heme
the configuration of heme holds Fe (that holds O2)
Cofactor
is attached to the polypeptide and allows the peptide to function (like the key to a car)
Erythropoiesis
the porduciton of RBC’s
Differentiation
when a cell matures, divides less, more specialized
Erythroblast
in red bone marrow, make hemoglobin & lose nucleus
Reticulocyte
enter circulation w/ some organelles left (no nucleus) not in bone marrow
can see on a microscope look like a RBC but have blue (ribosomes)
Erythropoietin (EPO)
is a hormone that can effect organs
the hormone is secreated more when O2 levels drop in the blood
Negative feedback loop
returns to homeostasis
Stimulus
what has changed that the body has to adjust?
Receptor
measures stimulus
Sensor
same as receptor
integrator
decides if stimulus is too far from set point
control center
another word for integrator
Efferent signal
notifies organs that action is needed
Effector
the organ that can correct the probelm
Response
what the effector does
Result
what happens after the response
Phagocytosis
phage (eat), Cyt (cell) Osis(process)
process of eating a cell
Phagocyte
are a type of WBC that detects and eats old RBC found in liver, spleen and marrow
Biliverdin
Bilirubin
Bile
Jaundice
Anemia
Sickle cell anemia
Polycythemia
Polycythemia vera
How does the RBC cytoskeleton differ form other cells?
it is flexible which allows it to squeeze through tiny vessels
How does the difference of the RBC cytoskeleton help with circulation?
gets it in smaller blood vessels to keep blood moving and getting O2 to each tissue
How is the RBC shape helpful to the primary function?
the shape helps increase surface area and bring more O2 to areas, also helps with diffusion
in terms of anaerobic respiration how are RBCs able to function without mitochondria?
before matured they have mitochondria & make all the ATP possible before mitochondrial go away
What would happen to other cells types if they were to lose their mitochondria (anaerobic respiration)
they would not be able to support the function of that cell for very long
Why is mitochondrial loss specifically helpful for RBCs primary function? (anaerobic respiration)
the primary function is to transport O2 w/out mitochondria this can be done better bc the mitochondria wont’ be using the O2 to make ATP, so all can be transported
How are RBCs able to function without a Nucleus & ribosomes?
they can’t replace proteins, all have to be made before get rid of organels
What would happen to other cell types if they were to lose their nucleus & ribosomes?
they would not be able to replace proteins and would not function correctly
How does extrusion of the nucleus and ribosomes adversely affect the ability of RBCs to renew themselves?
will not be able to replace proteins, there is no renewal of the RBC if a protein is defunct
What advantage might it be for RBC function to discard their nuclei
it allows more room to store hemoglobin which is the O2 binding protein, enabling it to transport more O2
What is the chemical rxn catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase?
H2O + CO2 –> H2CO3 –> H+ + HCO3-
What is the physiological importance of carbonic anhydrase?
the CO2 in blood with water in plasma turns to bicarbonate that can dissolve in plasma better, increasing CO2 transport, taken from tissues –> plasma –> lungs
(question 6. for 18.3) needs to draw
what is the structure of hemoglobin including (iron ions, Heme, alpha globin, beta globin)
List the stages of RBC formation in order starting with Hemocytoblasts
Hemocytoblast, erythroblast, reticulocytes, erythrocytes
What are the distinguishing characteristics of each stage of RBC formation?
Hemocytoblast: has a nucleus
erythroblast: no more nucleus, make hemoglobin
Reticulocytes: enter circulation some organelles left to eject the rest
Give the feedback loop for hematocrit homeostasis (stimulus, receptor, integrator, efferent signal, effector, response, result)
Stimulus: hypoxemia (lack of O2 in the blood)
Receptor: kidneys
Integrator: kidneys
efferent signal: EPO
Effector: Bone marrow
Response: Accelerated erythropoiesis
Result: increase in blood oxygen
Which cell type removes aged RBC’s
Phagocytosis specifically phagocytes in liver, spleen and marrow
How do the phagocytes tell an aged RBC from others?
the proteins in RBCs have a best used by date, The phagocytes touch the plasma membrane (made up of those proteins) if signals are present of break down of that membrane it will devour the cell
What organs remove aged RBCs
Liver, spleen, and marrow
What is the fate of iron ions when the RBC is being disposed of?
the iron ions get reused for new RBC’s or stored in liver/spleen
What is the fate of globins after RBS disposal?
go from hemoglobin to globins that are broken down to amino acids
What is the fate of Heme after RBS disposal?
hemoglobin –> heme
converted to biliverdin (green), and bilirubin (yellow ish) pigments, are excreted at the liver into the intestines w/ bile & goes to gall bladder
What are the three causes of anemia?
Poor erythropoiesis: inherited, poor nutrition, lead exposure
Excessive RBC destruction: sickle cell anemia
Excessive bleeding
What pigments are made from heme
Biliverdin
Bilirubin
How are the pigments made from heme removed from the body?
excreted at the liver to bile to the intestines then gall bladder, removed in feces (why feces is brown)
Where do pigments go if RBC are destroyed too fast? What is that condition called
to the liver or spleen causing jaundice or excessive pigmentation deposited in the skin
What can cause polycythemia?
to many RBC, dehydration (reduces blood volume and increases [RBC], higher elevations low atmospheric O2 concentration, increased EPO release
what are the risks to polycythemia?
Polycythemia vera: blood clots that could cause heart attack, stroke or a pulmonary embolism
Bleeding
loss of blood inside or outside of the body
Hemorrhage
excessive bleeding
List the three steps in the mechanism for hemostasis and define
Vascular spasm: contraction of blood vessels
Platelet plug: a precursor to a clot (temporary fix)
Coagulation: Formation of a blood clot
Is the platelet plug formation a negative or positive feedback loop? and why
Positive,
is a cascade, the more of one thing the more of the other and on and on. ADP activates platelets, if still surface area around the plug more ADP is released and then more platelets. This goes on an on
Difference between intrinsic & extrinsic pathway
Intrinsic: in the blood vessels
Extrinsic: outside blood vessels
Difference between bleeding and hemorrhage
Bleeding: loss of blood inside or outside
Hemorrhage: excessive bleeding
difference between thrombus and embolus
Thrombus: clot inside blood vessels attached to the wall
Embolus: clot or other foreign body circulating in vessels.
difference b/w platelet plug & clot
Platelet plug: temporary fix/ precursor to the clot
Vascular
Blood vessels
vascular spasm
involuntary contraction of blood vessels
Smooth muscle
consists of thick and thin filaments that are not arranged into sarcomeres giving it a non-striated pattern.
Lumen
inside of a hollow structure
ex. diameter of a blood vessel
Endothelium
tissue surface inside the body
Pain receptor
Nervous cells detecting damage
Endothelin
small peptides that are released as a signal that travels to the effector
a 21-amino acid long peptide that is a vasoconstrictor produced from endothelial cells, vascular smooth muscle cells
Neurotransmitter
chemical messengers that your body can’t function without. Their job is to carry chemical signals from one neuron to the next target cell
Platelet plug
the precursor to a clot that gets reinforced (temporary fix)
Collagen
fiber-like structure is used to make connective tissue
activates platelets
ADP
autocrine factor
causes more platelets to clump is an efferent signal
Autocrine factor
ADP
Serotonin
Paracrine factor
increases vasoconstriction
Paracrine factor
serotonin
Thromboplastin
clotting factor
Coagulation
formation of a blood clot
Clot
Fibrin mesh + trapped formed element
Enzyme cascade
a small stimulus to a large response
Fibrinogen
glycoprotein synthesized by the liver and is the major structural component of a clot
is inactive
Fibrin
made from fibrinogen
active, forms clot
polymerizes into a mesh that is sticky and traps RBC & platelets
Extrinsic pathway
outside blood vessels
Clotting factor
protein or ion that promotes coagulation
tissue factor
also called clotting factor 3
Factor VII
Clotting factor 7 is in the plasma from liver, mixes with III to activate X
Factor X
Clotting factor 10 is in plasma from liver and ends the extrinsic pathway.
Is where the pathways merge
Intrinsic pathway
in the blood vessel
Factor XII
is activated when there is damage to the endothelium
Common path
where the two parts converge at factor X
Prothrombin
Clotting factor II
cleaved by X to make Thrombin
Thrombin
X cleaves II to make thrombin
is a protein that helps clot
is cleaved to form fibrinogen
Anticoagulant
Prevents clots from forming to easily
Mast cell
secretes heparin
in tissues
Basophil
secretes heparin
in blood
Antithrombin & Protein C
from the liver, serves to reduce clotting
balances anticoagulants & clotting factor
Fibrinolysis
the process of breaking down clots
Thrombus
clot inside blood vessels that are attached to the wall
Embolus
clot or other foreign body circulating in vessels
Hemophilia
Genetic lack of a clotting factor
Thrombocytopenia
to few platelets
Thrombocytosis
To many platelets
Feedback loop for a vascular spasm
Stimulus: damage to endothelium
Sensors/ integrators: endothelial cells (cells that line blood vessels)
Efferent signals: endothelins
Effector: vascular smooth muscle
Response: constriction of blood vessels
Result: hemostasis
Feedback loop for platelet plug
Stimulus, receptor, integrator, efferent signal, effector, response, result
Stimulus: damaged epithelial cells
Sensor/integrator: collagen
Efferent signal: ADP
Effectors: platelets
Response: Forming a plug
Result: temporary fix, precursor to a clot
What triggers the extrinsic clotting pathway
when connective tissue under endothelium is exposed
What triggers the intrinsic clotting pathway?
when there is damage to the endothelium layer
What makes up a blood clot
fibrin mesh and trapped formed elements
Organs/ cells that secrete clotting factors
I, II, III, VII, X, XII
I: fibrinogen
II: Prothrombin
III: tissue factor, hurt cells emit III
VII: in plasma comes from liver
X: in plasma comes from liver
XII: damage to endothelium (intrinsic)
What is the role of factor X
plays a role in the coagulation cascade at the point of convergence b/w intrinsic & extrinsic
What is the role of clotting factor II
is a protein that helps get to clot, thrombin cleaves to get fibrinogen to fibrin –> fibrin forms the clot
WHAT PLASMA PROTEINS MADE BY THE LIVER REDUCE BLOOD CLOTTING (accidentally had caps lock on)
Antithrombin & protein C
What other chemical reduces clotting, and what cells make it
mast cells (tissues), basophils (form of WBC) that secrete heparin
how does a blood clot shrink
the platelets contract, pulling the clot in, and shrinking it until only serum is left
When does the fibrinolytic pathway start
once the body/ tissues begin to heal and the clot is no longer needed. The clot starts to shrink to make room for healing tissues
starts with platelets contracting
What is missing in hemophilia
the clotting factor
why is hemophilia dangerous?
small cuts can have great blood loss
What is the health risk of thrombocytopenia?
too few platelets to clot well, there is a risk of bleeding out/ loss of more blood with small cuts
What is the health risk of thrombocytosis?
too many platelets and clotting to well, can lead to stroke or a heart attack
Immunity
Humoral
Humoral immunity
immunity against body fluids without direct cellular contact
the process of adaptive immunity manifested by the production of antibodies by B lymphocyt
Antigen
Self molecule
Transfuse
Antibody
proteins secreted by plasma cells that bind antigens
can bind 2-10 antigens at a time
Plasma cell
Agglutinate
antibodies cross link antigen-bearing cells
clumping of RBC not like a clot
Hemolysis
Breaking open of blood cells
Blood type
Blood types are determined by the presence or absence of certain antigens, substances that can trigger an immune response if they are foreign to the body.
Glycoprotein
Glycoproteins are molecules that comprise protein and carbohydrate chains that are involved in many physiological functions including immunity.
ABO blood group
H antigen
Rh factor
D antigen
is a protein in RBC plasma membrane
Rh+
Rh-
Sensitization
Shock
BP crashing, respiratory distress in an intense rxn
chemicals allow blood vessels to relax which will crash the blood pressure
universal recipient
AB+
Universal donor
O-
HDN
RhoGAM
What is the process behind clinical blood typing
Describe how the antigens for blood types ABO are similar
Describe how the antigens for blood types ABO are different
Where are the ABO and Rh antigens located?
What kind of biochemicals are the ABO and Rh antigens
is sensitization needed for immune reaction for ABO and Rh
What antigens are on the RBCs of
(O, A, AB, B, Rh+, Rh-)
O: no antigens
A: A antigens
AB: A & B antigens
B: B antigens
Rh+: D antigen
Rh-: no D antigen
What antibodies are in the plasma of (O, A, AB, B, Rh+, Rh-)
O: anti-A & B antibodies
A: anti-B
AB: none
B: anti-A
Rh+: none
Rh-: anti-D (only if sensitized)
What is the universal donor’s ABO and Rh types
What is the universal recipient’s ABO and Rh types
What are the complications and causes for a severe blood transfusion rxn
Antibodies of recipient will attack RBC antigens from donor
this can cause agglutinated RBC’s may block arteries causing stroke/heart attack
can also cause shock and hemolysis
How do ABO and Rh incompatible transfusions differ with regard to sensitization
what is hemolytic disease in a newborn
What causes hemolytic disease in a newborn
what are the fathers and mothers Rh blood types in hemolytic disease
Why does hemolytic disease rearely occur in the first pregnacy
when is the mother Rh seronegative and when might she become seropositive
when can fetal blood cells cross the placental barrier
when can maternal antibodies cross the placental barrier
Cross at any time
how can HDN be prevented for a susceptible couple
what are the 4 valves or the heart and the alternate names
where are the four valves located
For each valve where does the blood come from
for each valve where does it pass blood to
compare trabeculae carneae and pectinate muscles
compare trabeculae carneae and papillary muscles
compare papillary muscles and chordae tendineae
compare arteries & veins
describe the pulmonary circuit
describe the systemic circuit
What are the tissues of each heart layer starting from the luminal surface
What tissues make up the endocardium
what are the two layers of serous pericardium
Where are the two layers of the serous pericardium located
Where is pericardial fluid located
What makes the pericardial fluid
What is the function of pericardial fluid
Where is the fibrous pericardium attached
W
What is the function of the Fibrous pericardium
What is the fibrous pericardium made for
Give the names for each sulci of the heart
What are the locations for each sulci of the heart
What arteries and veins are in each sulci of the heart
Where does the coronary sinus empty into
What empties into the coronary sinus
