Final Exam Flashcards
self diagnosis
thinking symptoms automatically apply to you
1 in ___ Canadians
will experience a
diagnosed mental
disorder in their
lifetime
1 in 5 (needs to be checked)
the scientific study of abnormal behaviour to
help describe, predict, explain, and change abnormal patterns of
functioning
Abnormal Psychology
“disease of”
pathology
Features of psychological abnormality (4Ds)
Deviance (diff, extreme, unusual)
Distress (upsetting)
Dysfunction (affects life)
Danger (risk of harm)
a psychological perspective that seeks to identify
the causes and treatment of psychological disorders, with the goal of improving well-being, functioning, and relationships
Clinical perspective
Divergence from the accepted social norms of behavior
Deviance
behaviours, thoughts and emotions that differ markedly
from a society’s ideas about proper functioning
Deviant behaviour
behaviour, ideas or emotions usually have to cause ____ before they can be labelled as abnormal
Distress
What is the difference between eccentric and deviant behaviour?
Whether it causes distress (but not always, ex - schizophrenia can empower people/make them think they’re God, etc.)
Examples of eccentric behaviour (non-deviant)
Nurse washing hands more than normal
Abnormal behaviour that tends to interfere with daily functioning
Dysfunction
4 areas of dysfunction in life
- relationships
- work
- education
- general health
abnormal behaviour may become dangerous to oneself or others
Danger
Behaviour may be consistently careless, hostile, or confused
Dangerous behaviour
research consistently shows that ______ is the exception rather than the rule to abnormal behaviour
dangerousness
Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th Edition)
DSM-5
DSM-5 describes 22 major categories containing
_____ different mental disorders
over 200
Why is DSM-5 useful to researchers
establishes
consistent and reliable diagnoses
DSM-5 continuum scale
low, moderate, high levels of each symptom
Study of causes of disorders
Etiology
abnormal psychological experiences are
conceptualized similarly to physical illnesses
Medical model
Medical model believes psychological illnesses have (3)
- defined symptoms
- distinctive biological and environmental causes
- possible cures
explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors
Biopsychosocial perspective
suggests that mental illness develops when a person who has some predisposition or vulnerability to
mental illness (the “diathesis”) experiences a major life stressor
(the “stress”)
Diasthesis-stress model
New initiative that aims to guide the classification & understanding of mental
disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them
Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)
Longterm goal of RDoC
to better understand what abnormalities cause different
disorders & to classify disorders based on those underlying causes, rather than
observed symptoms
RDoC researchers study causes of abnormal functioning on (3)
- Biological factors: genes, cells, brain circuits
- Psychological domains: learning, attention, memory
- Social processes and behaviour
____ of MH sufferers do not seek treatment
60%
____________ are likely attached to labelling people with
psychological disorders.
stigmas
Labelling may lead to low _______________
low self-esteem
dangers of labelling
Roughly 60% of sufferers do not seek treatment
* Education does not dispel the stigma
* Labelling may result in unnecessary consequences
* Labelling may be tough to shake
* Labelling may lead to low self-esteem
* May contribute to an external LOC
Why might empathy be low for MH disorders
stigma that people are making it up
Class of mental disorders involving
excessive fear, anxiety, and avoidance
Anxiety disorders
Anxiety is _________ with other anxiety & depression
highly comorbid (appears alongside)
3 types of anxiety disorders in the DSM–5
- Phobic disorders
- Panic disorder
- Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
Lifetime prevalence of anxiety
up to 29%
Most prevalent psych disorder
anxiety
disorder characterized by marked, persistent, and excessive fear
& avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations
Phobic disorder
irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly
interferes with an individual’s
ability to function
Specific phobia
Examples of phobias (2)
Specific phobia, Social Anxiety Disorder
Anxiety about social or
performance situations in
which scrutinization by others
& embarrassment may occur
Social anxiety disorder (SAD)
People tend to judge themselves as performing ____ competently than reality
less
___ of population is diagnosed with SAD at any given time
4%
Chance of being diagnosed with SAD in lifetime
12-14%
Women are ____ likely to be diagnosed with SAD
More
Is SAD only fear of negative judgement?
No, can include positive judgement.
Preparedness theory
We easily acquire fears that are evolutionarily relevant (snakes, heights, etc.) over biggest real threats like electricity/cars
Why do people develop phobias? (6)
- Preparedness theory
- Classical conditioning
- ___________________
- Temperament
- Biological model
- Stress
Pairing negative situation with a stimulus
classical conditioning
Direct, vicarious, informational pathways that lead to phobias
Behavioural accounts
Direct, vicarious, informational pathways that lead to phobias
Bevahioural accounts for phobias
involves sudden occurrence of multiple psychological
and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror (panic attacks)
Panic disorder
Panic attacks must happen in the _____ of a trigger
absence of a trigger
Lifetime diagnosis of panic disorder is _____
5%
Specific phobia
involving a fear of public places
Agoraphobia
Phobia characterized by chronic excessive worries
accompanied by restlessness, fatigue,
concentration problems, irritability, muscle
tension, and sleep disturbance
Generalized anxiety disorder
Lifetime prevalence of GAD
5%
GAD is higher in ____ SES
Low SES
OCD involves (2)
Obsessions and compulsions
repetitive, intrusive, thoughts…
Obsessions
repetitive behaviours designed to reduce anxiety or
prevent something bad from happening
Compulsions
Cognitive theory for OCD
Caused by misinterpretation of thoughts, can’t shake intrusive thoughts off.
Lifetime prevalence of OCD
2-3%
Not just right experience
OCD behaviours caused by feeling that something isn’t right
Examples of OCD-related disorders (2)
hoarding & body dysmorphia
OCD is due to (2)
interference and distress
OCD is ___ from Anxiety disorders in DSM-5
separated
characterized by:
* A traumatic event
* chronic physiological arousal (hypervigilance)
* recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma
(e.g. “flashbacks”)
Posttraumatic stress disorder
Lifetime prevalence of PTSD
up to 10%
mood disturbances are central feature
Mood disorders
Depressive disorders (2)
- Major Depressive Disorder
- Persistent Depressive Disorder
Types of mood disorders (2)
-Depressive disorder
-Bipolar and related disorders
Mood disorder prevalence in Canada
1 in 12
characterized by a severely depressed mood and diminished
interest or pleasure that lasts 2+ wks; and three other symptoms
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
Other term for Major Depressive Disorder (MDD)
“unipolar depression”
Additional symptoms of MDD (8)
weight loss/gain or increase/decrease in appetite
* insomnia/hypersomnia
* psychomotor agitation/retardation
* fatigue/loss of energy
* feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt
* indecisiveness, or reduced ability to think or concentrate
* recurrent thoughts of death/suicide, a suicide attempt, or a plan
____ believe they should be able to handle MH problems themselvs
73%
individuals
who are prone to depression
automatically attribute negative
experiences to causes that are
internal, stable, and global
Helplessness theory
Unstable emotional
condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression)
Bipolar disorder
_______ lasts 1wk+ and involves any of:
grandiosity, energy, decreased need for sleep, elated or irritable mood, feelings of
invincibility and/or grandiosity, racing thoughts, reckless behaviour.
Mania
characterized by
-a profound disruption of basic psychological processes;
-a distorted perception of reality;
-altered or blunted emotion; and
-disturbances in thought, motivation, & behaviour
Schizophrenia
Includes “Positive” & “negative” symptoms, disorganized behaviour
schizophrenia
Prevalence of schizo in pop
1%
______ rarely develops before adolescence
schizophrenia
Positive symptoms of schizo
-Hallucinations
-Delusions
-Disorganized speech
-Grossly disorganized behaviour
-Catatonic behaviour
False perceptual experiences
Hallucinations
False beliefs, often bizarre, persecutory, or grandiose
Delusions
Severe disruption of verbal communication
(rapid, incoherent shift from one unrelated topic to another)
Disorganized speech
Behaviour inappropriate for the
situation or ineffective in attaining goals, often
with specific motor disturbances
Grossly disorganized behaviour
decrease in all movement
Catatonic behaviour
Negative symptoms of schizo
deficits/disruptions of normal emotions; absence
or insufficiency of normal behaviour, motivation, and emotion,
Examples of negative symptoms of schizo
Emotional and social withdrawal, apathy, poverty of speech
Cognitive symptoms of schizo
Deficits in
cognitive abilities in executive
functioning, attention, and
working memory
Specific events or chronic pressures that place
demands on a person or threaten their well-being
Stressors
Physical and psychological response to internal or
external stressors
Stress
Subfield of psychology concerned with
the ways that psychological factors influence the causes and
treatment of physical illness and the maintenance of health
Why “internal”?
Health psychology
Unrealistic expectations are an example of an ______
internal stressor
Stress can come from negative and __________ events
positive
_____________ events produce less psychological distress and fewer physical symptoms
Positive
______ can sometimes counteract the effects of negative events
Happiness
Sources of stress that occur continuously/repeatedly
Chronic stressors
5 examples of chronic stressors
strained relationships
discrimination
bullying
overwork
finances
______________ studies links between our environments & stress levels
Environmental psychology
Studies show ____________ can be related to
more effective coping
perceived control over
stressful events
Role of locus of control in stress
Internal locus of control = more effective coping
Emotional
and physiological reaction to an
emergency that increases readiness
for action
Fight or flight response
hormone released by adrenal glands
is esp. released in times of stress to help
metabolize more glucose for your body to act
Cortisol
when a person is unable to find resolutions to difficult situations — even when a solution is accessible. External locus of control.
Learned helplessness
Rapid mobilization of bodily resources to respond to the threat (fight or flight)
Alarm phase
Adaptation to arousal
state, and coping with
stressor
Resistance phase
The body’s resistance collapses; leads
to aging, infection, tumor growth, organ damage, even death
Exhaustion phase
Constant exposure to stress leads to (2)
- Wear and tear on the body
- Accelerated ageing
Chromosomes (DNA) are repeatedly copied, carrying genetic
information to new cells: process facilitated by __________
telomeres
caps at the ends of the chromosomes that prevent them from sticking to
each other; shorten with every cell division (natural aging)
telomeres
Stress shortens _______
telomeres
What happens when cells stop dividing when telomeres become too short
Organism death
Stressors can cause _______ to flood the
brain, wearing down the immune system and
making it less able to fight invaders
hormones
study of how the immune
system responds to psychological variables
Psychoneuroimmunology
Decreased immune response/stress may be related to
___________
Low socioeconomic status
Example of heart & circulatory system affected by stress
atherosclerosis
Example of heart & circulatory system affected by stress
atherosclerosis
Research links intensity, drive, anger & hostility
to _____________
increased rates of heart disease
Tendency towards
easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of
time urgency & competitive achievement strivings
Type A behaviour pattern
________ is one of the best predictors of heart disease,
above and beyond diet & smoking
Hostility
__________ & ___________ stress responses are intertwined
Physiological & psychological
interpretation of a stimulus as stressful or not
Primary appraisal
determination of whether the stressor is something
that can be handled or not
Secondary appraisal
stressor that you believe might not be overcome
Threat
stressor you feel fairly confident you can control
Challenge
The body responds differently to a threat (negative
appraisal) than a ___________ (positive appraisal)
Challenge
A state of physical, emotional & mental exhaustion created
by long-term involvement in an ___________ demanding situation
Burnout
Burnout is accompanied by lowered ________ & ________
performance & motivation
Burnout is caused by (2)
- Emotionally stressful jobs (or uni)
- Gauging your self-worth by success at work (or uni) alone
Two kinds of psychological factors influence health
-health-relevant personality traits
-health behaviours
Examples of health-relevant personality traits
Type A behaviour, optimism, hardiness
Examples of health behaviours
-heathy eating
-exercising
-avoiding sexual risks
-not smoking
-sleeping routine
Optimism is one of
the best psychological
predictors of
_______?
happiness
(seeing the sunny side of every situation) is healthier than
pessimism (expecting things to go wrong)
Optimism
______ seems to aid maintenance of psychological health in the face of physical problems
Optimism
A person’s level of optimism or pessimism tends to be ________________
stable, heritable
Stress-resistant people have _______
hardiness
3 C’s of hardy people
- A sense of Commitment
- Belief in control
- Acceptance of challenge
_____ individuals seem to be thick-skinned and able to take more
stress or criticism that may hurt others, tend to handle stress better, and are overall healthier
Hardy
You can train yourself to be more _____
hardy
exercise of voluntary control over the
self to bring it into line with preferred standards; willpower
Self-regulation
Self-regulation involves
delay of instant gratification for longterm gains
In Western cultures, the average weight is
___________
increasing alarmingly
prevention of
obesity is more effective than
dieting
Must increase ______________ if increase
caloric intake
bodily activity
we have a tendency to
___________ our own risk.
underestimate
__________ are ways to counteract
physical & psychological stress
Stress management techniques
3 forms of stress management
-The mind
-The body
-The situation
We often _________ stressful events in our mind
magnify
We have ___________ memories of stressful events
intrusive
avoiding situations or thoughts that are reminders
of a stressor and maintaining an artificially positive viewpoint
Repressive coping
Deliberately ignoring the problem through putting unpleasant thoughts
& emotions out of one’s mind
Repressive coping
Facing the stressor & working to overcome it
* unpleasant, but usually short lived
Rational coping
Three-step process of rational coping
1) Acceptance: accepting that a stressor exists
2) Exposure: attending to or seeking out the stressor
3) Understanding: working to find the meaning
stressors hold in one’s life
finding a new or creative way to think
about a stressor that reduces a threat
Reframing
reframing technique that helps people cope with stressful situations by developing positive ways to think about situations
Stress inoculation training (SIT)
Bodily techniques useful in
stress management
- Relaxation
- Meditation
- Biofeedback
- Aerobic exercise
- Sleep
__________involves changing your life to reduce
stress through
Situation management
Situation management techniques (4)
- Social support
- Religious or spiritual practice
- humour
- Avoiding procrastination
the aid gained through interacting with others
Social support
Good relationships with family & friends and taking part in social
activities can be as good for you as _____ and _____
exercising & not smoking
Being in a relationship is
associated with ____ Mental Health
better
Female social support response to stress
Tend-and-befriend response
Male social support response to stress
Fight or flight response
Women are ______ likely to seek support under stress
more
the hormone __________ triggers social
responses
oxytocin
affiliation with or engagement
in the practices of a particular religion
Religiosity
having a belief in &
engagement with some higher power, not
necessarily linked to any particular religion
Spirituality
Why is religiosity and spirituality associated with lower stress
better social networks, following
healthy advice of spiritual leaders/teachings
reduces sensitivity to ___________ & ___________
Pain and stress
Humour is linked with
hardiness
putting off a task for later
procrastination
Why do we procrastinate?
A task may:
* be boring
* be difficult or unpleasant
* require too much effort
Delaying gratification correlated with _________________
intelligence
________________________ can reduce procrastination
procrastination
Bodily techniques useful in stress management
- Relaxation
- meditation
- Biofeedback
- Aerobic exercise
- Sleep
technique for reducing tension by consciously
relaxing muscles of the body
Relaxation therapy
condition of reduced muscle tension, cortical
activity, heart rate, breathing rate & blood pressure
Relaxation response
symptoms of stress
tension, cortisol, blood pressure
practice of intentional contemplation
meditation
Benefits of meditation
- cognitive: e.g. attention
- emotional: e.g. emotional regulation
- physical: e.g. slows ageing
Benefits of meditation
- cognitive: e.g. attention
- emotional: e.g. emotional regulation
- physical: e.g. slows ageing
focus on the “here and now”
mindfulness
exercise that increases
the heart rate & oxygen intake for a
sustained period
Aerobic exercise
Aerobic exercise may increase may increase _________ and
__________
serotonin and
endorphins
Hyperarousal is associated with high ____
cortisol
Sleep deficiency can cause us to feel stressed because (3)
ess patient, more agitated, emotional reactivity
Sleep can reduce (2)
blood pressure, cholesterol levels
Types of psychotherapies offered (6)
-Cognitive behavioural
-Interpersonal
-Psychodynamic
-Humanistic/existential
-Family systems
-Other
Fewer than _______ of mental health patients receive “minimally adequate” treatments
40%
2 categories of psych treatment
-Psychological
-Biological
Example of psychological mental health treatment
-Therapy
Examples of biological mental health treatment
-Drugs
-Surgery
-Direct intervention
Therapy also talked “talk therapy”
Psychotherapy
a process whereby psychological problems are treated through
communication and relationship factors between an individual &
a trained mental health professional
Psychotherapy
involves drawing on techniques from different therapies
Eclectic psychotherapy
Therapy to explore childhood events
and encourage clients to use this understanding to develop
insight into their psychological problems
Psychodynamic psychotherapy
______________ assumes that humans are born with aggressive & sexual urges
that are repressed during childhood by the use of defense mechanisms
Psychoanalysis
Psychoanalysis goal
To understand the unconscious through
developing insight
Therapy to address interpersonal relationships as
barriers to reaching one’s potential
Humanistic & existential therapies
Therapy to address interpersonal relationships as
barriers to reaching one’s potential
Humanistic & existential therapies
Types of Humanistic & existential therapies
-person-centred therapy
-gestalt therapy
helps client become aware of and take responsibility for thoughts,
behaviours, experiences & feelings
Gestalt therapy
Therapy to offer solutions to help change the immediate circumstances with lasting
effects (unlike medications); learned adaptive strategies & ways of thinking
Cognitive and behavioural therapies
Therapy with assigned homework in between sessions
Cognitive and behavioural therapies
Therapy that relies on principles of learning to change maladaptive
behaviours
Behavioural therapy
Learning principles of behaviour therapy
operant conditioning & classical conditioning
Therapy that works to help identify
and disordered thinking patterns
Cognitive therapy
Therapy that involves giving clients/in-patients tokens for desired behaviour,
which can be later traded for rewards
Token economy
100 level on COLLEGE UNDERGRADUATE STRESS SCALE (2)
-Being raped
-Finding out HIV positive
Why do positive events cause stress
require readjustment and preparedness
Many chronic stressors are linked to __________.
social relationships
How can our environments contribute to stress?
noise, traffic, crowding, pollution, and even the threat of violence
people who live in cities show significantly ________ amygdala activity in response to stressors than do those who live in towns
greater
How does stress from discrimination effect people?
-Increased maladaptive behaviours
-Higher rates of health problems
-Difficulty in interactions with clinicians
being rejected by people of your own race was associated with ___________ (mendes study)
greater displays of shame and physiological changes associated with an avoidance state (increased cortisol)
being rejected by members of a different race was associated with ______________________________
displays of anger, greater vigilance for danger, physiological changes associated with an approach state (i.e., higher cardiac output and lower vascular resistance), and higher risk taking.
In a 2011–2014 survey (Statistics Canada, 2016), _________of Canada’s non-Indigenous population rated their health as good or excellent.
60%
only ________of First Nations, Métis, and Inuit people respectively reported their health as good or excellent
48.5%, 51.3%, and 44.9%
life expectancy is ____________ for Indigenous people, compared to other Canadians
5 to 10 years shorter
children who attended school under the flight path reported ______ levels of noise annoyance and showed poorer reading comprehension
higher
events are most stressful when there is _______
nothing to do
Who named the fight-or-flight response
Walter Cannon (1992)
What happens when the sympathetic nervous system is activated
increase heart rate, blood pressure, and respiration rate
Order of HPA Axis
Hypothalamus (releasing factor) > Pituitary gland (ACTH through blood) > Adrenal gland (cortisol + catecholamine hormones)
2 catecholamines hormones
Epinephrine
Norepinephrine
Who undertook a variety of experiments that looked at the physiological consequences of severe threats to well-being in the 1930s
Hans Selye
What did Hans Selye do
subjected rats to heat, cold, infection, trauma, hemorrhage, and other prolonged stressors
What did Hans Selye find
general adaptation syndrome (GAS)
three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered.
three-stage physiological stress response that appears regardless of the stressor that is encountered.
What does it mean that GAS is nonspecific
the response doesn’t vary, no matter what the source of the repeated stress.
3 stages of GAS
- alarm phase
- resistance phase
- exhaustion phase
Alarm phase of GAS
fight-or-flight response, body rapidly mobilizes its resources to respond to the threat.
resistance phase of GAS
Body processes shut down: Digestion, growth, and sex drive stall; menstruation stops; production of testosterone and sperm decreases.
exhaustion phase of GAS
Many of the resistance-phase defences cause gradual damage as they operate
Leads to susceptibility to infection, tumour growth, aging, irreversible organ damage, or death.
Chronic stress can _____ the ageing provess
Spead up
caps at the ends of the chromosomes that prevent the chromosomes from sticking to each other.
telomeres
an enzyme that rebuilds telomeres at the tips of chromosomes.
telomerase
People exposed to chronic stress have ______ telomere length and _______ telomerase activity
Shorter, lower
Activities such as _______ and _______ seem to prevent chronic stress from shortening telomere length
exercise, meditation
Salary where happiness plateaus
$75,000 U.S
people with higher incomes live significantly _________ than those with lower incomes
longer
the difference between the wealthiest 1% and the poorest 1% is approximately ____ years for men and ____ years for women
15, 10
if you are poor but live in a place with higher population density, a higher percentage of immigrants and university graduates, higher government expenditures, and higher home values, you will live significantly _________.
longer
among children growing up in poor families, each year of life they spend _______________________ is associated with a significant increase in the amount of money they will earn as an adult later in life.
a tendency towards easily aroused hostility, impatience, a sense of time urgency, and competitive achievement strivings
Type A behaviour pattern
of the 258 men who had heart attacks in the 9 years following the interview, more than___________had been classified as Type A
two-thirds
2 steps of stress interpretations
- Primary appraisal
- Secondary appraisal
The interpretation of a stimulus as being stressful or not
Primary appraisal
determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not
Secondary appraisal
determining whether the stressor is something you can handle or not
Secondary appraisal
interpretations of stressors can change threats into _______
challenges
Increased ________ can improve your performance
arousal
researchers found that even interactions as innocuous as ____________ can produce threat or challenge responses
conversations
Theory of burnout cause
using your job to give meaning to your life
Prolonged exposure
recording a verbal account of the event and then listening to the recording daily.
a repetitive sound, such as om
Mantra
a technique used to measure the subtle activity of muscles.
electromyography (EMG)
EEG biofeedback (or neurofeedback) is moderately successful in treating brain-wave abnormalities in disorders such as __________
epilepsy
How can social support help stress and health?
-intimate partner can help you remember to exercise and follow your doctor’s orders
-Talking about problems with friends and family
-Sharing tasks and helping each other when times get tough
University students report engaging in academic procrastination between _____ and _______of the time
30% and 60%
persistent pattern of deviating from the norm _______qualify as a mental disorder.
does not
persistent disturbance or dysfunction in behaviour, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment
Mental disorder
a person may be predisposed to a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress
Diathesis-stress model
Result of indigenous residential schools on mental health
resulted in many of the children suffering from psychological disorders such as depressive and anxiety disorders, substance-related and addictive disorders, and trauma and stressor-related disorders
rates of suicide amongst Indigenous Peoples in Canada are at least ______ times as high as they are in the general population
three
The example of intergenerational trauma in residential schools illustrates how incorrect it would be to ___________________________
oversimplify mental disorders by attributing them to single internal cause
5 categories of specific phobias
(1) animals
(2) natural environments (e.g., heights, darkness, water, storms);
(3) situations (e.g., bridges, elevators, tunnels, enclosed places);
(4) blood, injections, and injury;
(5) other phobia
Approximately _______of people in the United States and Canada will develop a specific phobia during their lives
12%
Researchers have found that infants who display __________ are at an increased risk for developing a phobic behaviour later in life
excessive shyness and inhibition
Researchers have found that infants who display __________ are at an increased risk for developing a phobic behaviour later in life
excessive shyness and inhibition
Approximately ______ people in the United States and Canada suffer from GAD at some time in their lives
1 in 16
the percentage of pairs that share the characteristic
Concordance rates
Reasons women are more susceptible to GAD than men
women are more likely than men to live in poverty, experience discrimination, or be subjected to sexual or physical abuse
People are more susceptible to PTSD if they
have a smaller hippocampus
How long does persistent depressive disorder last
at least 2 years
Approximately ______ Canadians meets the criteria for depression at some point in their lives
1 in 9
Women have ______ rates of depression than men
higher
depression shows _______ heritability, with heritability estimates increasing as a function of __________.
moderate, severity
Negative schema of depression
-interpretations of information
-attention
-memory
at least four mood episodes (either manic or depressive) every year
rapid cycling bipolar disorder
Bipolar disorder tends to be _____
persistent
one gene influences a person’s susceptibility to multiple disorders.
pleiotropic effects
Why might each twin have different susceptibility to mental health disorders?
Differences in epigenetics
a break from reality
psychosis
The symptoms of schizophrenia often are separated into (3)
positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms.
thoughts and behaviours, such as delusions and hallucinations, not seen in those without schizophrenia
Positive symptoms
deficits in or disruptions of normal emotions and behaviours for people with schizophrenia
Negative symptoms
deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in executive functioning, attention, and working memory for people with schizophrenia
cognitive symptoms
Among children whose biological mothers had schizophrenia, the _________ increased their likelihood of developing schizophrenia
disturbed environment
