Final Exam Flashcards
Hormones definition
chemicals made by endocrine glands, has different structures (lipids, steroids, proteins)
What are glands
glands are a organ that releases a secretion, ex. enzymes, hormones
4 Hormone classes
amine, peptide, protein, steroid (estrogen, testosterone)
Posterior Pituitary Hormones
oxytocin, ADH (they transport by axons)
Anterior Pituitary Hormones
FSH, LH, ACTH, Thyroid, Prolactin, Growth (they secrete into capillary plexus 1)
Parathyroid hormone
PTH triggered by low calcium levels, effects bone to stimulate osteoblasts (incre breakdown)
Aldosterone
produce by Adrenal cortex, triggered by low Na+, high K+, low blood pressure/volumes, stimulate kidney to excrete K+, Na+ retention
Cortisol
from ACTH/Adrenal cortex, involved in stress response, causes high blood pressure, low digestion activity
Epinephrine and Norepinephrine
apart of short term stress, from Adrenal medulla, causes increase heart rate/breathing, high blood glucose/pressure
Stress response (3 phases)
- alarm: fight/flight, hypothalamus stim release of epine/norepine from medulla, body preps for physical activity
- resistance: long short term stress, cortisol released, other hormones released, high blood glucose/pressure
- exhaustion: cortisol uses all body resources, health problems, muscle loss, carb/fat storage lost, high blood pressure
Insulin and Glucagon
insulin triggered by high blood glucose, pancreas release B cells, liver starts taking up glucose
glucagon triggered by low blood glucose, pancreas release a cells, liver causes glycogenesis (make glucose)
Thymosin
from Thymus, involved in immune system
Melationin
from Pineal gland, inhibit LH, helps sleep cycle
Oxytocin
hypo-post-breast (milk letdown)/uterus (contract)
ADH
hypo-post-kidney (high water retention)
Gonadotropic RH
hypo-GnRH-ant-FSH/LH-ovaries/testes
Thyroid HRH
hypo-THRH-ant-TSH-thyroid (T3/T4)(heart)
Prolactin
hypo-prolactin RH-ant-prolactin (breast, milk produc)
Growth RH
hypo-GRH-growth H-bones/liver
ACTHRH
hypo-ACTHRH-ant-ACTH-adrenal gland-cortisol
Sinoatrial node
has pacemaker cells, generate own depolarization
Atrioventricular node
makes impulse pass through heart, receives from SA and send to Av bundle, heart contract bottom up
Heart cycle
- depolarization at SA node
- atria contract first
- ventricles contract from bottom up
ECG (P,Q,R,S,T)
P- SA node starts impulse, atria contract AV valve open
Q- interval of AV node delay
QRS- impulse travel AV bundle, ventricle start depolar, atria repolar
R- beginning of ventricle depolar and contraction
Before T- ventricle contract and depolar
T- ventricle repolar and relax
Nervous Regulation of Heart
cardioinhibitory center- parasym sys connect to all of heart (relax)
cardioacceleratory center- symp sys, release norepine on ventricle walls (fight/flight)
Sensory Regulation of Heart
barorecep- high blood osmolarity
chemorecep- pH (low CO2/O2, lactic acid)
propriorecep- joints/limbs (physical activity)
thermorecep- body temp
Double circulation
pulmonary- carry deoxygen blood to right atrium/ventricle to lungs to get O2
systemic- carry oxygen blood to left atrium/rest of body
Blood flow cycle
infer vena cava-right atrium-tricuspid valve-right ventricle- pulmonary valve-pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary vein-left atrium-mitral/bicuspid valve-left ventricle-aortic valve-aorta
Parts of the Formed Elements of blood
erythrocytes- transport gas
leukocytes- body defense (immune)
platelets- blood clotting
Hematopoiesis
formation of blood cells, all blood cells start from hemocytoblasts then differentiate
Hematocrit
RBC as % of blood volume
Erythropoiesis
formation of RBS, stimulated by erythropoietin (kidney)
Leukocytes
many types, immune function, found in blood, lymph,
Neutrophil
multi lobes, eat particles, antibacterial (60-70%)
Eosinophil
bi lobe, anti inflammatory, anti parasitic (0-1%)
Basophil
bi lobe, release inflammatory molecules, ex. histamine
(1-4%)
Small lymhocyte
large nucleus, B: antibodies, T: recognize/kill foreign cells
(20-25%)
Monocyte
kidney shape nucleus, engulf particles as macrophages
(1-6%)
Hemostasis
injury to blood vessel
1. vascular spasm- muscle in blood vessel contracts
2. platelet plug formation- site release chemicals, collagen exposed, activation of platelets (stick to each other)
3. blood clotting: fibrinogen convert to fibrin, forms mesh to trap platelets
-intrinsic (clotting in plasma)/extrinsic pathway (tissue
factor released), need Ca+, thrombin, K+
Blood pressure
pressure exerted on vessel walls
systolic- force on atrial walls during ventric contract
diastolic- force on atrial walls during ventric relax
Contribution to Blood Pressure
-heart rate, cardiac output (pump volume)
-blood (volume, peripheral resistance)
-blood vessels (vasoconstric/dilat)
Lymphatic system functions
-drain excess fluid from blood vessel to interstitial to venous sys
-transport dietary lipids
-immune response
Innate Sys: External
prevent access from outside
-ear wax, stomach acid, tears, hair/cilia
Innate Sys: Interal
-complement sys (protein attach to pathogen to break/kill, can promote inflammation)
-natural killer cells (induce apoptosis)
-neutrophil/macrophages (phagocytosis/ apoptosis)
-monocyte (many use, phagocytize cells)
-inflammation
-fever
Adaptive Immune Sys
-use B/T cells
-specific, recognize/kill pathogen
-has memory
-antigen presenting cells show antigen of pathogen
humoral immunity- fight pathogen, extracellular threats
cell mediated- cell/cell combat, infected cells
Humoral Branch
B- red bone marrow
T- thymus
B activated for specific pathogen, helper T activate B, B undergo expansion, memory B/T made
T helper release cytokines, stim leukopoiesis
T regulatory keep immune sys under control
How Antibodies fight
opsonization: label pathogen for phagocytes
agglutination: stick pathogen together
neutralization: stop pathogen from doing damage
activate complement: to destroy pathogen
Cell Mediated
cell to cell combat, intracellular threats
-cells display MHC (ID card)
-NKC, no ID, inject
-T cytotoxic, fake ID, inject
Cellular Respiration
-breakdown of organic molecules for energy
-exchange of gases
Pressures in Lung
-transpulmonary (IP+IAA press, lower than IAA)
-intrapleural (pleural cavity, lower than IAA)
-intra alveolar (in alveoli, equal to atmosphere press)
Relax Inhalation
-diaphragm, external intercostal contract
-thoracic volume increases
-IAA pressure lowers
-air rush into lungs
Relax Exhalation
-diaphragm, external intercostal relax
-thoracic volume decreases
-elastic lung tissue recoils
-IAA pressure rises
Hyperpnea proccess
forced breathing
-additional muscles
Hyperventilation proccess
-increase rate/depth of breathing
-low CO2 levels
-causes alkalosis, high pH
Nervous control of Breathing
Medulla rhythmicity area
-dorsal/ventral respiratory groups
-stim diaphragm/muscles to contract (inhale)
-stop stim, muscles relax (exhale)
-sensory receptors, chemo/stretch
Pontine respiratory group
-has apneustic area, stim DRG, deep inhale
-has pneumatic area, stop DRG, relax
-smooths breathing
Gas transport (hemoglobin)
O2 + Hb = HbO2
CO2 + Hb = Hb-CO2
Carbonic acid bicarbonate system
CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = HCO-3 + H+
Digestion in Mouth to Esophagus
buccal cavity- mastication, mix food with salivary amylase
esophagus- deglutition: 1. volun, tongue push food back
2. pharyngeal, nasal cavity close
3. esophageal, peristalsis
Digestion in stomach
-creates chyme
-secretion of pepsinogen-pepsin, intrinsic factor
-HCl, stop saliv amy, stim lingual lip, gastric juice secrete
-mechanical digestion
Digestion in small intestine
duodenum:
-emulsify fats (bile)
-most chemical digestion
-pancreatic enzymes
jejunum:
-absorb most nutrients
ileum:
-absorption of H20
-some mineral absorb
-propulsion/mechanical digestion (segmentation)
Digestion in large intestine
caecum:
-bacteria storage
colon:
-bacteria digestion
-some vit K made
-absorb H20, vit, minerals
rectum:
-feces formation
-defecation (waste)
Liver functions in digestion
-bile production
-vit, minerals storage
-filtration, blood from digestive sys (hepatic portal)
-convert waste, (ammonia-urea)
Gallbladder functions
produce/store bile salts
Pancreas functions in digestion
-produce pancreatic juice
-enzymes for digestion, pan amy, lip, trypsinogen
4 parts of Cell respiration
- glycolysis (cytoplasm)
- pyruvate processing
- krebs cycle
- oxidative phosphorylation
Anabolic and Catabolic
anabolic- energy consuming, endergonic reaction
catabolic- energy giving, exergonic reaction
Oxidation reduction
reduction: gain electrons + energy
oxidation: lose electrons + energy
Glycolysis
process that convert glucose to pyruvate acid
energy investment phase:
-glucose is phosphorylated (uses 2 ATP)
-splits into 2, 3 carbon molecule
energy payback phase:
-2 carbon oxidized…
-electrons ^ transfer to NAD - NADH (2x)
-4 ATP made
-…make 2 pyruvate
Pyruvate process
-pyruvate transport to mitochondrial matrix
-pyruvate loss CO2, joins coenzyme A, forms acetyl coa
Krebs cycle
-oxaloacetate 4C joins acetyl coa 2C
-citric acid 6C to 4C, make 2 NADH, 2 CO2
-from citrate 4C, 1 ATP, 1 NADH, 1 FADH2
-cycle repeats
-this process strips electrons from carbon,
Oxidative Phosphorylation
- Electron transport chain:
-NADH/FAD oxidized, give electron to protein complex
-electrons energy is to pump protons across mem
-oxygen is final acceptor - Chemiosmosis:
-ETC cause high H+ levels, becomes potential energy
-ATP synthase use energy to create ATP
Anerobic Conditions: ETC
-no O2 = no electron flow, no NAD+/FAD+
Lactic acid formation
-pyruvate oxidizes NADH - NAD+
-changes pyruvate to lactic acid at end of glycolysis
Carb metabolism
-excess glucose convert by glycolysis/glycogenesis
-low glucose convert by glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
-AA, lactic acid, glycerol, convert by gluconeogenesis
-after convert to glucose, goes to cell respiration then ATP
Lipid metabolism
-when low carb levels
-triglyceride go through lipolysis, make glycerol/fatty acid
-fatty beta oxidize to acetyl coa
-glycerol gluconeogenesis to glucose
Process when excess carbs
-acetyl coa to lipogenesis (w/glycerol help)
-forms triglycerides, stored as fat
Process when excess acetyl coa
(ketone bodies)
-acetyl coa to ketogenesis
-forms acetone (waste in lung), B hydro acid, acetoacetic
-those go ketolysis, then krebs cycle
Protein metabolism
-first deaminated
-then convert to pyruvate, acetyl coa, oaa (used for krebs)
Electrolytes and 3 types
-compounds that dissociate in water to release ions
-salts, acids, bases
Electrolytes: salts
formed by ionic bonds, dissociate in solution, forms
NaCl = Na + Cl
Electrolytes: acid and base
releases H+ in solution, proton donor (H+ + OH = H2O)
releases OH, proton acceptor
Importance of electrolytes
- maintain acid/base balance
- maintain fluid balance
- electrical currents (muscle contract, nerve impulse)
- cofactors for enzymes
Fluid compartment
2/3 intracellular
1/3 extracellular
-interstitial (80%)
-plasma (20%)
Electrolyte ion composition in blood
-Na+ major cation, extracellular
-Na+, Cl, interstitial
-Na+, Cl, Protein anions, plasma
-K+ abundant in intracellular
Sources of acid in body
- CO2 from carb breakdown (CO2 + H2O = H2C03)
- breakdown of organic molecules, carb to pyr/lactic acid
- nitrogenous waste (uric acid)
- digestive sys, HCl (gastric juice)
Sources of base in body
- intake of alkaline drugs
- diet intake (veggies)
- digestive sys, bile, pancreatic juice
Buffers components
-contain weak acid and base
-acid component release H+ when base added
-base component absorb H+ when acid added
-resist change in pH
Buffer sys to keep homeostasis
- carbonic acid bicarbonate sys
-respiratory
-H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3- - respiratory sys
-blood pH regulate by ventilation, neg feedback on CO2 - urinary sys
-can retain or excrete H+
-acidic, make bicarbonate added to blood
-alkaline, slow mechanism for acidosis
Parts of the urinary sys and functions
ureters- transport urine from kidney to bladder
urinary bladder- storage of urine, internal sphincter
urethra- transport bladder urine out, external sphincter
(kidney-ureter-bladder-urethra)
5 parts of the kidney
cortex- functional tissue
medulla- collecting ducts that empty to pelvis
hilum- blood, lymph, vessels, nerves, ureter exit here
capsule- protect kidney
Kidney functions
-excrete waste
-maintain fluid balance and homeostasis
-electrolyte and pH balance
Urine composition
-specific gravity 1.003-1.032
-pH 4.5 - 8 (protein=acidic, veg=alkaline)
-95% H2O, 5% solute
-AA-ammonia-urea-nucleotides-uric acid
Glomerular filtration
-passive, blood pressure force solute out into bowmans
-filters all except cells and large proteins
Tubular reabsorption
-most water returns to blood
PCT: reabsorb nutrients, waste secreted, H+ for pH balance, passive diffusion/osmosis
Loop of Henle: H2O reabsorb in descending, Na+/K+ reabsorb in ascending (impermeable to water)
DCT: HCO3- reabsorb, some Na+, Cl
Tubular Secretion
-controls pH
-rid of excess K+
Urinary hormone control
-parathyroid stimulate calcium reabsorption
-ADH, aldosterone, Na+, K+, H2O
Micturition
-stretch receptor
-spinal reflex
-parasympathic reflex for detrusor to contract (somatic nerve keep external sphincter contract)
-internal sphincter relax
-external sphincter relax (voluntary)
-pee
What does spermatogenesis do
-release of FSH, maintaining testosterone levels
-release of LH stimulates spermatogenesis
Ovarian cycle reason
-maturation of ovum
-control by FSH/LH
Uterine (menses) cycle reason
-develop/shedding of uterine lining
-prep uterus to fertilize ovum
-control estrogen/progesterone
Ovarian: Oogenesis (oocyte)
primary oocyte- diploid cell at begin of meiosis
secondary oocyte- division of meiosis
primary follicle- primary oocyte surround by cuboidal layer
secondary follicle- primary oocyte surround by many granulosa cells
tertiary follicle- antrum fills secondary oocyte
corpus luteum- develop from follicle, post ovulation, secrete estro/proges
Ovarian: Follicle Phase (1-13)
-hypothalamus secrete GnRH to release FSH/LH
-FSH secretes estrogen (LH), also cause a few tertiary follicles to grow
-negative feedback, lowers FSH/LH, one follicle remains
Ovarian: Ovulation (14)
-high estrogen levels, positive feedback on hypo, LH increase
-high LH triggers ovulation, follicle burst, release to fallopian tubes
Ovarian: Luteal (15-28)
-remaining follicle becomes corpus luteum and secretes estrogen
-negative feedback lowers FSH/LH
-if no pregnancy corpus luteum dies, if pregnant hCG helps corpus
Uterine: Menses (1-5)
-low estrogen and progesterone levels
-stratum functionals sheds
Uterine: Proliferative (6-14)
-estrogen levels rise
-grows stratum functionals (needed if pregnant)
-ovum carried to uterus
Uterine: Secretory (15-28)
-high progesterone maintain thick endometrial layer
-falling estrogen/progesterone level cause layer to shed (menses)
Order of the events after Fertilization
cell division
blastocyst
implantation
hCG hormone
What is fertilization
formation of a zygote
ovum-second oocyte-zona pelluida(sperm receptor)-corona radiata(granulosa cells)
Blastocyst
-trophoblast (enzyme for implantation) secretes hCG, soon forms chorion (embryonic of placenta)
-inner cell mass form rest of embryo
Implantation process
blastocyst attaches to endometrium, trophoblast enzyme helps also removes zona pellucida
hCG hormone
-trophblast secretes this, prevents immune sys from rejecting embryo
-secretes estro/proges until placenta forms
Embryonic development and membranes
-chorion (trophoblast) for extra membrane
-3 germ layers, ectoderm(skin/nervous), mesoderm(cells/tissue), endoderm(diges/resp sys)
-allantois(umbilical), yolk sac(embryo cells), chorion(placenta embryonic), amnion(amniotic fluid)
Placenta functions
-take over hormone secretion from corpus luteum
-complete by week 14-16
- maternal-fetal exchange: nutrients, waste, gas exchange
- endocrine secretions: hCG, estrogen, progesterone
- protection: antibodies
Labor stage (pregnancy)
- dilation- uterus contract, fetus move to cervix, amnion bursts
- expulsion- fetus through vagina, contractions
- placenta- uterine contraction resumes, placenta expells
Genetics information
-23 homologous chromosomes from each parent (46)
-DNA synthesis duplicate chromosomes, sister chromatid
-each cell has 22 autosomal, 1 set sex chromosomes
Mitosis phases
cell division, asexual reproduction
before prophase: DNA synthesis
prophase: chromosome condense, nuclear envelope dissolve
prometaphase: mitotic spindle forms, attach to centromere
metaphase: chromosomes align on plate
anaphase: sister chromatid separate
telophase: new nuclei form, spindle dissolve
(cytokinesis: cells separate)
Meiosis phases
produce gametes for sexual reproduction, daughter cells are genetically unique, each cell has half parent chromosome
interphase: DNA synthesis
prophase I: chromosome condense, exchange segments, spindle forms
metaphase I: line up on plate, independent assortment
anaphase I: chromosomes separate
telophase I: 2 new cells
prophase II: nuclear envelope dissolve, new spindle forms
metaphase II: sister chromatids align on plate
anaphase II: chromatids separate
telophase II: 4 haploid daughter cells, genetically unique
Genetic diversity
- crossing over- sister chromatids exchange segments
- independent assortment- chromosome line up independent of pair
Genes and Alleles
alleles- a version of genes, dom/reces, person has 2 alleles per gene
genes- on a chromosome
Nondisjunction
error in meiosis, either missing (monosomy) or extra (trisomy) chromosome, mitotic spindle doesn’t split chromosomes properly
