Final Exam Flashcards by Lumhen Okojie

Hormones definition

chemicals made by endocrine glands, has different structures (lipids, steroids, proteins)

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What are glands

glands are a organ that releases a secretion, ex. enzymes, hormones

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4 Hormone classes

amine, peptide, protein, steroid (estrogen, testosterone)

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Posterior Pituitary Hormones

oxytocin, ADH (they transport by axons)

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Anterior Pituitary Hormones

FSH, LH, ACTH, Thyroid, Prolactin, Growth (they secrete into capillary plexus 1)

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Parathyroid hormone

PTH triggered by low calcium levels, effects bone to stimulate osteoblasts (incre breakdown)

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Aldosterone

produce by Adrenal cortex, triggered by low Na+, high K+, low blood pressure/volumes, stimulate kidney to excrete K+, Na+ retention

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Cortisol

from ACTH/Adrenal cortex, involved in stress response, causes high blood pressure, low digestion activity

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Epinephrine and Norepinephrine

apart of short term stress, from Adrenal medulla, causes increase heart rate/breathing, high blood glucose/pressure

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Stress response (3 phases)

alarm: fight/flight, hypothalamus stim release of epine/norepine from medulla, body preps for physical activity
resistance: long short term stress, cortisol released, other hormones released, high blood glucose/pressure
exhaustion: cortisol uses all body resources, health problems, muscle loss, carb/fat storage lost, high blood pressure

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Insulin and Glucagon

insulin triggered by high blood glucose, pancreas release B cells, liver starts taking up glucose
glucagon triggered by low blood glucose, pancreas release a cells, liver causes glycogenesis (make glucose)

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Thymosin

from Thymus, involved in immune system

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Melationin

from Pineal gland, inhibit LH, helps sleep cycle

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Oxytocin

hypo-post-breast (milk letdown)/uterus (contract)

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ADH

hypo-post-kidney (high water retention)

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Gonadotropic RH

hypo-GnRH-ant-FSH/LH-ovaries/testes

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Thyroid HRH

hypo-THRH-ant-TSH-thyroid (T3/T4)(heart)

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Prolactin

hypo-prolactin RH-ant-prolactin (breast, milk produc)

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Growth RH

hypo-GRH-growth H-bones/liver

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ACTHRH

hypo-ACTHRH-ant-ACTH-adrenal gland-cortisol

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Sinoatrial node

has pacemaker cells, generate own depolarization

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Atrioventricular node

makes impulse pass through heart, receives from SA and send to Av bundle, heart contract bottom up

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Heart cycle

depolarization at SA node
atria contract first
ventricles contract from bottom up

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ECG (P,Q,R,S,T)

P- SA node starts impulse, atria contract AV valve open
Q- interval of AV node delay
QRS- impulse travel AV bundle, ventricle start depolar, atria repolar
R- beginning of ventricle depolar and contraction
Before T- ventricle contract and depolar
T- ventricle repolar and relax

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Nervous Regulation of Heart

cardioinhibitory center- parasym sys connect to all of heart (relax)
cardioacceleratory center- symp sys, release norepine on ventricle walls (fight/flight)

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Sensory Regulation of Heart

barorecep- high blood osmolarity
chemorecep- pH (low CO2/O2, lactic acid)
propriorecep- joints/limbs (physical activity)
thermorecep- body temp

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Double circulation

pulmonary- carry deoxygen blood to right atrium/ventricle to lungs to get O2
systemic- carry oxygen blood to left atrium/rest of body

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Blood flow cycle

infer vena cava-right atrium-tricuspid valve-right ventricle- pulmonary valve-pulmonary artery-lungs-pulmonary vein-left atrium-mitral/bicuspid valve-left ventricle-aortic valve-aorta

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Parts of the Formed Elements of blood

erythrocytes- transport gas
leukocytes- body defense (immune)
platelets- blood clotting

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Hematopoiesis

formation of blood cells, all blood cells start from hemocytoblasts then differentiate

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Hematocrit

RBC as % of blood volume

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Erythropoiesis

formation of RBS, stimulated by erythropoietin (kidney)

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Leukocytes

many types, immune function, found in blood, lymph,

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Neutrophil

multi lobes, eat particles, antibacterial (60-70%)

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Eosinophil

bi lobe, anti inflammatory, anti parasitic (0-1%)

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Basophil

bi lobe, release inflammatory molecules, ex. histamine
(1-4%)

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Small lymhocyte

large nucleus, B: antibodies, T: recognize/kill foreign cells
(20-25%)

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Monocyte

kidney shape nucleus, engulf particles as macrophages
(1-6%)

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Hemostasis

injury to blood vessel
1. vascular spasm- muscle in blood vessel contracts
2. platelet plug formation- site release chemicals, collagen exposed, activation of platelets (stick to each other)
3. blood clotting: fibrinogen convert to fibrin, forms mesh to trap platelets
-intrinsic (clotting in plasma)/extrinsic pathway (tissue
factor released), need Ca+, thrombin, K+

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Blood pressure

pressure exerted on vessel walls
systolic- force on atrial walls during ventric contract
diastolic- force on atrial walls during ventric relax

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Contribution to Blood Pressure

-heart rate, cardiac output (pump volume)
-blood (volume, peripheral resistance)
-blood vessels (vasoconstric/dilat)

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Lymphatic system functions

-drain excess fluid from blood vessel to interstitial to venous sys
-transport dietary lipids
-immune response

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Innate Sys: External

prevent access from outside
-ear wax, stomach acid, tears, hair/cilia

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Innate Sys: Interal

-complement sys (protein attach to pathogen to break/kill, can promote inflammation)
-natural killer cells (induce apoptosis)
-neutrophil/macrophages (phagocytosis/ apoptosis)
-monocyte (many use, phagocytize cells)
-inflammation
-fever

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Adaptive Immune Sys

-use B/T cells
-specific, recognize/kill pathogen
-has memory
-antigen presenting cells show antigen of pathogen
humoral immunity- fight pathogen, extracellular threats
cell mediated- cell/cell combat, infected cells

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Humoral Branch

B- red bone marrow
T- thymus
B activated for specific pathogen, helper T activate B, B undergo expansion, memory B/T made
T helper release cytokines, stim leukopoiesis
T regulatory keep immune sys under control

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How Antibodies fight

opsonization: label pathogen for phagocytes
agglutination: stick pathogen together
neutralization: stop pathogen from doing damage
activate complement: to destroy pathogen

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Cell Mediated

cell to cell combat, intracellular threats
-cells display MHC (ID card)
-NKC, no ID, inject
-T cytotoxic, fake ID, inject

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Cellular Respiration

-breakdown of organic molecules for energy
-exchange of gases

Pressures in Lung

-transpulmonary (IP+IAA press, lower than IAA)
-intrapleural (pleural cavity, lower than IAA)
-intra alveolar (in alveoli, equal to atmosphere press)

Relax Inhalation

-diaphragm, external intercostal contract
-thoracic volume increases
-IAA pressure lowers
-air rush into lungs

Relax Exhalation

-diaphragm, external intercostal relax
-thoracic volume decreases
-elastic lung tissue recoils
-IAA pressure rises

Hyperpnea proccess

forced breathing
-additional muscles

Hyperventilation proccess

-increase rate/depth of breathing
-low CO2 levels
-causes alkalosis, high pH

Nervous control of Breathing

Medulla rhythmicity area
-dorsal/ventral respiratory groups
-stim diaphragm/muscles to contract (inhale)
-stop stim, muscles relax (exhale)
-sensory receptors, chemo/stretch

Pontine respiratory group

-has apneustic area, stim DRG, deep inhale
-has pneumatic area, stop DRG, relax
-smooths breathing

Gas transport (hemoglobin)

O2 + Hb = HbO2

CO2 + Hb = Hb-CO2

Carbonic acid bicarbonate system

CO2 + H2O = H2CO3 = HCO-3 + H+

Digestion in Mouth to Esophagus

buccal cavity- mastication, mix food with salivary amylase
esophagus- deglutition: 1. volun, tongue push food back
2. pharyngeal, nasal cavity close
3. esophageal, peristalsis

Digestion in stomach

-creates chyme
-secretion of pepsinogen-pepsin, intrinsic factor
-HCl, stop saliv amy, stim lingual lip, gastric juice secrete
-mechanical digestion

Digestion in small intestine

duodenum:
-emulsify fats (bile)
-most chemical digestion
-pancreatic enzymes
jejunum:
-absorb most nutrients
ileum:
-absorption of H20
-some mineral absorb
-propulsion/mechanical digestion (segmentation)

Digestion in large intestine

caecum:
-bacteria storage
colon:
-bacteria digestion
-some vit K made
-absorb H20, vit, minerals
rectum:
-feces formation
-defecation (waste)

Liver functions in digestion

-bile production
-vit, minerals storage
-filtration, blood from digestive sys (hepatic portal)
-convert waste, (ammonia-urea)

Gallbladder functions

produce/store bile salts

Pancreas functions in digestion

-produce pancreatic juice
-enzymes for digestion, pan amy, lip, trypsinogen

4 parts of Cell respiration

glycolysis (cytoplasm)
pyruvate processing
krebs cycle
oxidative phosphorylation

Anabolic and Catabolic

anabolic- energy consuming, endergonic reaction
catabolic- energy giving, exergonic reaction

Oxidation reduction

reduction: gain electrons + energy
oxidation: lose electrons + energy

Glycolysis

process that convert glucose to pyruvate acid
energy investment phase:
-glucose is phosphorylated (uses 2 ATP)
-splits into 2, 3 carbon molecule
energy payback phase:
-2 carbon oxidized…
-electrons ^ transfer to NAD - NADH (2x)
-4 ATP made
-…make 2 pyruvate

Pyruvate process

-pyruvate transport to mitochondrial matrix
-pyruvate loss CO2, joins coenzyme A, forms acetyl coa

Krebs cycle

-oxaloacetate 4C joins acetyl coa 2C
-citric acid 6C to 4C, make 2 NADH, 2 CO2
-from citrate 4C, 1 ATP, 1 NADH, 1 FADH2
-cycle repeats
-this process strips electrons from carbon,

Oxidative Phosphorylation

Electron transport chain:
-NADH/FAD oxidized, give electron to protein complex
-electrons energy is to pump protons across mem
-oxygen is final acceptor
Chemiosmosis:
-ETC cause high H+ levels, becomes potential energy
-ATP synthase use energy to create ATP
Anerobic Conditions: ETC
-no O2 = no electron flow, no NAD+/FAD+

Lactic acid formation

-pyruvate oxidizes NADH - NAD+
-changes pyruvate to lactic acid at end of glycolysis

Carb metabolism

-excess glucose convert by glycolysis/glycogenesis
-low glucose convert by glycogenolysis/gluconeogenesis
-AA, lactic acid, glycerol, convert by gluconeogenesis
-after convert to glucose, goes to cell respiration then ATP

Lipid metabolism

-when low carb levels
-triglyceride go through lipolysis, make glycerol/fatty acid
-fatty beta oxidize to acetyl coa
-glycerol gluconeogenesis to glucose

Process when excess carbs

-acetyl coa to lipogenesis (w/glycerol help)
-forms triglycerides, stored as fat

Process when excess acetyl coa

(ketone bodies)
-acetyl coa to ketogenesis
-forms acetone (waste in lung), B hydro acid, acetoacetic
-those go ketolysis, then krebs cycle

Protein metabolism

-first deaminated
-then convert to pyruvate, acetyl coa, oaa (used for krebs)

Electrolytes and 3 types

-compounds that dissociate in water to release ions
-salts, acids, bases

Electrolytes: salts

formed by ionic bonds, dissociate in solution, forms
NaCl = Na + Cl

Electrolytes: acid and base

releases H+ in solution, proton donor (H+ + OH = H2O)
releases OH, proton acceptor

Importance of electrolytes

maintain acid/base balance
maintain fluid balance
electrical currents (muscle contract, nerve impulse)
cofactors for enzymes

Fluid compartment

2/3 intracellular
1/3 extracellular
-interstitial (80%)
-plasma (20%)

Electrolyte ion composition in blood

-Na+ major cation, extracellular
-Na+, Cl, interstitial
-Na+, Cl, Protein anions, plasma
-K+ abundant in intracellular

Sources of acid in body

CO2 from carb breakdown (CO2 + H2O = H2C03)
breakdown of organic molecules, carb to pyr/lactic acid
nitrogenous waste (uric acid)
digestive sys, HCl (gastric juice)

Sources of base in body

intake of alkaline drugs
diet intake (veggies)
digestive sys, bile, pancreatic juice

Buffers components

-contain weak acid and base
-acid component release H+ when base added
-base component absorb H+ when acid added
-resist change in pH

Buffer sys to keep homeostasis

carbonic acid bicarbonate sys
-respiratory
-H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3-
respiratory sys
-blood pH regulate by ventilation, neg feedback on CO2
urinary sys
-can retain or excrete H+
-acidic, make bicarbonate added to blood
-alkaline, slow mechanism for acidosis

Parts of the urinary sys and functions

ureters- transport urine from kidney to bladder
urinary bladder- storage of urine, internal sphincter
urethra- transport bladder urine out, external sphincter
(kidney-ureter-bladder-urethra)

5 parts of the kidney

cortex- functional tissue
medulla- collecting ducts that empty to pelvis
hilum- blood, lymph, vessels, nerves, ureter exit here
capsule- protect kidney

Kidney functions

-excrete waste
-maintain fluid balance and homeostasis
-electrolyte and pH balance

Urine composition

-specific gravity 1.003-1.032
-pH 4.5 - 8 (protein=acidic, veg=alkaline)
-95% H2O, 5% solute
-AA-ammonia-urea-nucleotides-uric acid

Glomerular filtration

-passive, blood pressure force solute out into bowmans
-filters all except cells and large proteins

Tubular reabsorption

-most water returns to blood
PCT: reabsorb nutrients, waste secreted, H+ for pH balance, passive diffusion/osmosis
Loop of Henle: H2O reabsorb in descending, Na+/K+ reabsorb in ascending (impermeable to water)
DCT: HCO3- reabsorb, some Na+, Cl

Tubular Secretion

-controls pH
-rid of excess K+

Urinary hormone control

-parathyroid stimulate calcium reabsorption
-ADH, aldosterone, Na+, K+, H2O

Micturition

-stretch receptor
-spinal reflex
-parasympathic reflex for detrusor to contract (somatic nerve keep external sphincter contract)
-internal sphincter relax
-external sphincter relax (voluntary)
-pee

What does spermatogenesis do

-release of FSH, maintaining testosterone levels
-release of LH stimulates spermatogenesis

Ovarian cycle reason

-maturation of ovum
-control by FSH/LH

Uterine (menses) cycle reason

-develop/shedding of uterine lining
-prep uterus to fertilize ovum
-control estrogen/progesterone

Ovarian: Oogenesis (oocyte)

primary oocyte- diploid cell at begin of meiosis
secondary oocyte- division of meiosis
primary follicle- primary oocyte surround by cuboidal layer
secondary follicle- primary oocyte surround by many granulosa cells
tertiary follicle- antrum fills secondary oocyte
corpus luteum- develop from follicle, post ovulation, secrete estro/proges

Ovarian: Follicle Phase (1-13)

-hypothalamus secrete GnRH to release FSH/LH
-FSH secretes estrogen (LH), also cause a few tertiary follicles to grow
-negative feedback, lowers FSH/LH, one follicle remains

Ovarian: Ovulation (14)

-high estrogen levels, positive feedback on hypo, LH increase
-high LH triggers ovulation, follicle burst, release to fallopian tubes

Ovarian: Luteal (15-28)

-remaining follicle becomes corpus luteum and secretes estrogen
-negative feedback lowers FSH/LH
-if no pregnancy corpus luteum dies, if pregnant hCG helps corpus

Uterine: Menses (1-5)

-low estrogen and progesterone levels
-stratum functionals sheds

Uterine: Proliferative (6-14)

-estrogen levels rise
-grows stratum functionals (needed if pregnant)
-ovum carried to uterus

Uterine: Secretory (15-28)

-high progesterone maintain thick endometrial layer
-falling estrogen/progesterone level cause layer to shed (menses)

Order of the events after Fertilization

cell division
blastocyst
implantation
hCG hormone

What is fertilization

formation of a zygote
ovum-second oocyte-zona pelluida(sperm receptor)-corona radiata(granulosa cells)

Blastocyst

-trophoblast (enzyme for implantation) secretes hCG, soon forms chorion (embryonic of placenta)
-inner cell mass form rest of embryo

Implantation process

blastocyst attaches to endometrium, trophoblast enzyme helps also removes zona pellucida

hCG hormone

-trophblast secretes this, prevents immune sys from rejecting embryo
-secretes estro/proges until placenta forms

Embryonic development and membranes

-chorion (trophoblast) for extra membrane
-3 germ layers, ectoderm(skin/nervous), mesoderm(cells/tissue), endoderm(diges/resp sys)
-allantois(umbilical), yolk sac(embryo cells), chorion(placenta embryonic), amnion(amniotic fluid)

Placenta functions

-take over hormone secretion from corpus luteum
-complete by week 14-16

maternal-fetal exchange: nutrients, waste, gas exchange
endocrine secretions: hCG, estrogen, progesterone
protection: antibodies

Labor stage (pregnancy)

dilation- uterus contract, fetus move to cervix, amnion bursts
expulsion- fetus through vagina, contractions
placenta- uterine contraction resumes, placenta expells

Genetics information

-23 homologous chromosomes from each parent (46)
-DNA synthesis duplicate chromosomes, sister chromatid
-each cell has 22 autosomal, 1 set sex chromosomes

Mitosis phases

cell division, asexual reproduction
before prophase: DNA synthesis
prophase: chromosome condense, nuclear envelope dissolve
prometaphase: mitotic spindle forms, attach to centromere
metaphase: chromosomes align on plate
anaphase: sister chromatid separate
telophase: new nuclei form, spindle dissolve
(cytokinesis: cells separate)

Meiosis phases

produce gametes for sexual reproduction, daughter cells are genetically unique, each cell has half parent chromosome
interphase: DNA synthesis
prophase I: chromosome condense, exchange segments, spindle forms
metaphase I: line up on plate, independent assortment
anaphase I: chromosomes separate
telophase I: 2 new cells
prophase II: nuclear envelope dissolve, new spindle forms
metaphase II: sister chromatids align on plate
anaphase II: chromatids separate
telophase II: 4 haploid daughter cells, genetically unique

Genetic diversity

crossing over- sister chromatids exchange segments
independent assortment- chromosome line up independent of pair

Genes and Alleles

alleles- a version of genes, dom/reces, person has 2 alleles per gene
genes- on a chromosome

Nondisjunction

error in meiosis, either missing (monosomy) or extra (trisomy) chromosome, mitotic spindle doesn’t split chromosomes properly

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Final Exam Flashcards

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