Final Exam Flashcards
Diabetes Insidious is caused by?
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) hyposecretion
Negative Feedback inhibition occurs when?
Thyroid hormone (TH) targets the anterior pituitary
The hypothalamus-hypophyseal portal system connects the hypothalamus to the?
Anterior Pituitary (adenohypophysis)
What has both endocrine and Exocrine functions?
The gonads (ovaries and testes) (and the pancreas)
Many hours after a meal , what happens in the pancreas?
Alpha (a) cells in the pancreatic islets secrete glucagon, which raises blood glucose
What hormone does not stimulate the release of another hormone by its target cells?
PRL = Prolactin (secreted by pituitary gland, targets breasts/milk)
What does antidiuretic hormone (ADH) target?
the kidneys
Is Insulin a steroid hormone?
No
Is luteinizing hormone (LH) a hypothalamic hormone?
NO
What is up-regulation?
the increase in the number of receptors making a target cell more sensitive to a hormone
What gland responds to Hypocalcemia?
The Parathyroid gland secretes PTH to raise blood calcium levels
What does the posterior pituitary secrete?
Oxytocin (OT)
What does the absence of iodine in the diet lead to?
Hypothyroidism
What does Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) do?
Promotes the resorption of calcium from bone
What does the thyroid gland do?
secretes a hormone that increases the body’s metabolic rate, promotes alertness, quickens reflexes, and stimulates the fetal nervous system
What is the hormone that stimulates the anterior pituitary to secrete ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone)?
Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
Are Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (DM) characterized by lack of or low levels of insulin?
NO
What does the anterior pituitary secrete?
Growth Hormone aka somatotropin
What hormone has more target cells in the body than any other?
Growth Hormone
ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone) stimulates the secretion of what horomone?
Glucocorticoid (cholesterol-derived steroid hormones synthesised and secreted by the adrenal gland)
What does Growth Hormone hypersecretion cause in childhood and adulthood?
In childhood causes gigantism , in adulthood causes acromegaly
What is acromegaly?
The thickening of bones and soft tissues, especially in the hands, face, and feet due to GH hyper-secretion
If a cell has a1 adrenergic receptors, what is it sensitive to?
Norepinephrine (NE)
What is the background rate of sympathetic and parasympathetic activity called?
Autonomic tone
Preganglionic fibers run from ____ to ____
gray matter to autonomic ganglion
What do muscarinic receptors bind and where are they found?
They bind acetylcholine and are found on all cardiac and smooth muscle, and glands when they have cholinergic innervation
Do splanchnic nerves synapse at the sympathetic ganglion?
No, they pass through the sympathetic ganglion without synapsing
Where does the parasympathetic division originate?
The brain and sacral regions
Where does the sympathetic division originate?
The thoracic and lumbar regions
Are sympathetic fibers associated with digestion?
NO
Does the sympathetic division have short or long preganglionic fibers?
SHORT
Does the parasympathetic division have short or long preganglionic fibers?
LONG
What does the adrenal medulla mostly secrete?
Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Where is the sympathetic chain ganglion found?
At all levels of the spine
Is the adrenal medulla under dual control of the ANS?
NO it is not
What is associated with the fight or flight response?
Inhibition of digestion and reduced urinary output (sympathetic division)
What happens when ACh binds to a nicotinic receptor of a muscle cell?
ACh binding to a nicotinic receptor is ALWAYS excitatory
The 2 ACh receptors
Nicotinic and muscarinic receptors
What is secreted by nearly all sympathetic post ganglionic fibers?
Norepinephrine (NE)
2 Types of NE receptors
a-adrenergic and b-adrenergic receptors
a-adrenergic receptors
excitatory
b-adrenergic receptors
inhibitory
Most preganglionic fibers in the sympathetic nervous system synapse with how many postganglionic neurons?
10-20
How does the effect of autonomic fibers on target cells differ from somatic fibers?
Autonomic fibers can be excitatory or inhibitory. Somatic fibers are always excitatory
Properties of the preganglionic fibers of the autonomic efferent pathway
myelinated and release ACh
What is the neurotransmitter associated with autonomic ganglia?
ACh. It is always ACh for the junction between preganglionic fiber and autonomic ganglion.
What are the neurotransmitters associated with post ganglionic nerve fibers?
ACh if its parasympathetic and ACh if its cholinergic sympathetic or NE if its adrenergic sympathetic
Properties of autonomic nerve fibers pre and post ganglion
Preganglionic fiber is myelinated , post ganglionic fiber is unmyelinated
White Rami
= INCOMING SIGNAL
Grey Rami
= OUTGOING SIGNAL
What do the white and gray rami carry?
White rami carries preganglionic myelinated neurons, Grey rami carries post ganglionic unmyelinated neurons
What does the Autonomic nervous system control?
The Glands, smooth muscle, and caridac muscle. It does NOT control skeletal muscle
Where are most fibers of the parasymathetic division found?
In the Vagus
Motor pathways of the autonomic nervous system usually involve how many neurons?
2
Where do preganglionic sympathetic fibers release neurotransmitters?
Into paravertebral ganglion (sympathetic chain ganglion)
What does the incus articulate with?
The malleus and stapes
Where do nerve fibers from all regions of the retina converge?
onto the optic disc and exit the eye by way of the optic nerve
What produces a receptor potential in a taste bud?
The gustatory cells
What detects changes in CSF pH?
Chemoreceptors
What produces that taste sensation Umami?
Amino acids such as aspartic acid and glutamine
What houses the sprial organ?
the Cochlea
What eye condition does not need a corrective lens?
Emmetropia, it refers to 20/20 vision. The eye is the perfect length to focus an image
What do pheromones stimulate?
Olfactory cells
What is the order of cells in the retina from back to front?
Photoreceptors - bipolar cells - ganglion
When you travel in an elevator, what senses that you are moving?
The hair cells of the otolithic membrane of the macula sacculi
Is the retina considered an optic component of the eye?
NO
Macula Sacculi concerns linear or vertical acceleration?
Macula Sacculi concerns vertical movement like being in an elevator. It has a vertical orientation in Saccule
Macula utriculi concerns linear or vertical acceleration?
Macula utriculi concerns linear movement like being in a car. It has a horizontal orientation in utricle.
what are the optical components of the eye?
the cornea, lens, auqeous humor, and vitreous body
What is the crista ampullaris associated with?
Dynamic equilibrium in angular acceleration
What is the only sense in which signals can reach the cerebral cortex without passing through the thalamus?
Olfaction (smell)
What allows upper respiratory infections to spread from the throat to the tympanic cavity?
The auditory (eustachian) tube
Changes in blood pressure are sometimes detected by what in arteries?
Mechanoreceptors, its usually baroreceptors
What organ does not have nocireceptors?
The brain
When you view objects close to the eye, what is the adjustment the eye makes called?
Accomodation
What is visible to the naked eye on the tongue?
The Lingual Papilla
What is responsible for photopic (day) vision as well as trichromatic (color) vision?
Cone Cells
A fracture of which vertebrae is least likely to cause a spinal cord injury?
Spinal cord only extends to about L1 in adults so fracture to vertebrae L2-L5 is least likely to cause spinal cord injury
Where are interneurons located?
Spinal Cord
What is the brachial plexus comprised of?
Anterior rami from C5 - T1
In the nodding off reflex, what is the reflex that causes the head to rise?
The Stretch reflex (myotonic reflex)
How many neurons does a simple reflex involve?
2
CSF fills what space?
Space between the aranchoid mater and the pia mater
Where is the arbor vitae found?
In the cerebellum
What is the brain lobe deep to the lateral sulcus?
the Insula, can only be seen by removing some of the overlying cerebrum
What sinus does not contain CSF?
Dural sinus
Describe the appearance and position of the pons
Appears as a large bulge just rostral to the medulla
Rostral and Caudal
Rostral = toward the foward
Caudal = toward the tail (back)
What type of fiber are eyes and ears innervated by?
Special fibers
What does the medulla oblongata originate from?
the Myelencephalon
What do you call a reflex arc that uses only 2 neurons?
Monosynaptic reflex arcs
Which is richer in lipid content, white or gray matter?
White matter. Myelin is a lipid, myelin is white
What are the fibers that carry the action potentials that cause skeletal muscle to contract called?
Alpha motor neurons
Layer of the meninges from superficial to deep
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
What do the pons and cerebellum arise from?
The secondary embryonic vesicle the metencephalon
Destruction of the amygdala would mostly affect expression of what?
Emotional feelings
What is a ganglion?
A cluster of neurosomas in the PNS
What can injury to the reticular formation cause?
Irreversible coma . The reticular formation is in the middle of the brainstem and controls arousal and consciousness
Bacteria and white blood cells in the CSF accompanied with high fever and stiff neck would be a sign of what?
Meningitis
Somatosensory refers to signals from what?
Signals from bones, joints, muscle, skin NOT signals from viscera. Somatosensory signals are for touch, pain, heat, cold, stretch, pressure and one of their most important roles, proprioception
What separates the R & L cerebral hemispheres?
The longitudinal fissure
Motor commands are carried on descending or ascending tracts from the brain along the spinal cord?
Descending tracts (information going out)
The sensation of touch involves neurons located where?
in the the posterior root ganglion
What is a nerve?
A cordlike ORGAN composed of numerous axons
The thalamus, hypothalamus, and epithalamus are derivates of what?
The Diencephalon (embryonic structure)
What does the posterior root of the spinal nerve contains only what?
Only contains neurosomas of sensory neurons
Where is epidural anesthesia administered to block pain signals during pregnancy?
To the epidural space between the Dural sheath and the vertebral bones
Loss of motor coordination and equilibrium would most likely be associated with a lesion in what?
The cerebellum
What is CSF secreted by?
Choroid plexueses in the ventricles
What is CSF reabsorbed by?
Arachnoid granulations in the superior sagital sinus
Where are the hippocampus and amygdala found?
In the limbic system
A _____ is composed of a granular cluster of 8 proteins called ____ with DNA wrappe d around them
Nucleosome, histones
The genetic code is the link between?
mRNA and the 20 amino acids that they represent
A cell finishing mitosis has how many DNA molecules? And A cell finishing DNA replication has how many DNA molecules?
46 and 92
Most kidney tubules are made of what kind of epithelial tissue? specialized for absorption and secretion
Simple cuboidal
What epithelium provides a moist and slippery surface and is well suited to resist stress, as seen in the what?
Nonkeratinized, vagina
A brush border of microvilli is found in what kind of epithelium? Where can it be found?
Simple columnar epithelium, small intestine
Fibroblasts and protein fibers are associated with both what and what?
Dense regular and dense irregular connective tissues
The membrane that lines lumenal surfaces of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts consists of what?
Epithelium and lamina propria (mucous membrane)
Breast shrinkage after lactation ceases is a consequence of ?
Apoptosis
The most influential medical textbook of the ancient era was written by?
Galen
Who established a “code of ethics” for physicians and is considered the father of modern medicine?
Hippocrates
Who was known as the father of modern anatomy and was the first to publish accurate drawings of the body / an atlas?
Vesalius
What does Calcitrol (vitamin D) do?
Raises blood calcium levels
What does Calcitonin do?
Reduces blood calcium level. Produced by thryroid hormone. Has little affect on adults but big effect on children. Inhibits osteoclasts and ramps up osteoblast activity
What does Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) do?
Increases blood calcium levels by stimulating osteoclasts promoting resorption of calcium from bones , promotes calcium reabsorption by the kidneys , promotes calcitrol synthesis
2 Things that raise blood calcium levels
1 Thing that lowers blood calcium levels
PTH and Calcitrol
Calcitonin - secreted by thyroid
Why is osteoporosis common in older women?
Because estrogen usually would inhibit osteoclast activity but low levels of estrogen in older women = increased osteoclast activity
Comminuted fracture
bone is broken into 3 or more pieces
Compound fracture
Bone is breaking through the skin / open wound
What is any bony prominence called?
A process
What 2 facial bones are unpaired?
Sphenoid and ethmoid bones
What articulates with the vertebral column?
The occipital condyle
What is the pelvic outlet?
The inferior opening of the pelvis
What is the false pelvis?
The lower part of the the abdominal cavity between the illiums
Synostosis
Fusion of 2 bones and is the least moveable joint
What is a Synarthrosis and what are the 3 types?
Synarthrosis is a fibrous joint and the 3 types are Sutures, Gomphoses, Syndesmoses. Sutures and Gomphoses = short collagen fibers, not much movement
Syndesmoses = longer collagen fibers, more movement. Syndesmoses is found between ulna and radius
What are the joints between vertebrae?
Symphyses. Symphyses are bound by fibrocartilage
What type of lever is the atlanto-occipital joint?
1st Class Lever
What type of lever is flexing your elbow?
3rd Class lever
What type of lever is extending your elbow?
1st Class lever
Sitting in a chair and raising one thigh is what kind of lever?
2nd Class
Raising onto balls of the feet (plantar flexion) is what type of lever?
2nd Class
Both flexion and extension at the knee joint is what kind of lever?
3rd Class
What marks the boundaries of a sarcomere?
Z discs
Triads of a muscle fiber
2 Terminal cisterns and 1 T tubule
Where do cross bridges form?
Between binding sites on myofilaments and myosin heads
During muscle contraction, the movement of what protein exposing binding sites for myosin?
Tropomyosin
What protein is a calcium receptor in skeletal muscle?
Troponin
What is mechanical advantage?
Ratio of output force to input force
In order for muscle to continue contracting in anaerobic fermentation , what is essential?
Myokinase ( creatine phosphate also works in a similar way)
What shape is the muscle of the recturs femoris?
Pennate
What should you use to lift a heavy box off the floor?
The power of the knee and hip extensors
