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anatomy 1 > final exam > Flashcards

final exam Flashcards

1
Q

3 factors that regulate stroke volume

A

preload, contractility, after load

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2
Q

preload: degree of ___ by entering blood ___ contraction

A

stretch, before

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3
Q

frank starling law

A

greater preload increases force of contraction

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4
Q

frank starling law: the ___ the heart fills with blood during diastole, the ____ the force of contraction

A

more, greater

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5
Q

higher preload > ___ stroke volume

A

increased

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6
Q

contractility depends on ___ in sarcoplasm

A

Ca

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7
Q

positive inotropic agents ____ contractility and SV

A

increase

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8
Q

examples of positive inotropic agents

A

elevated Ca, epinephrine, norepinephrine, certain drugs

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9
Q

negative inotropic agents ____contractility, stroke volume

A

decrease

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10
Q

negative inotropic agent examples

A

anoxia, acidosis, anesthetics, medications, increased K+ in interstitial fluid

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11
Q

afterload ____ ejection of blood out of chamber

A

opposes

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12
Q

afterload: left ventricle: must overcome _____ to ____

A

overcome aortic pressure, eject blood

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13
Q

example of afterload: pressure in LV must be ___ than aorta in order for the ____ valve to open and allow blood flow

A

higher, aortic semilunar

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14
Q

increase in afterload causes stroke volume to

A

decrease

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15
Q

_____ and ____ increase afterload and reduce stroke volume

A

arteriosclerosis, high blood pressure

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16
Q

adjustments in heart rate important for control of

A

cardiac output and blood pressure

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17
Q

sinoatrial node: ___ beats/min

A

100

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18
Q

autonomic NS regulation: originates in

A

cardiovascular center of brainstem

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19
Q

autonomic NS regulation: sympathetic: increase frequency of nerve pulse – ____heart rate

A

increase

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20
Q

autonomic NS regulation: parasympathetic: ____ heart rate

A

decrease

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21
Q

parasympathetic regulation predominates at

A

rest

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22
Q

hormones that regulate heart rate

A

epinephrine, norepinephrine, thyroid hormones

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23
Q

hormones ___ heart rate and contractility

A

increase

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24
Q

trachycardia

A

elevated resting heart rate

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25
Q

bradycardia

A

reduced resting heart rate

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26
Q

cations heart regulation: ionic ____ can compromise pumping effectiveness

A

imbalances

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27
Q

cations: concentration of ___, ___, ___ are important

A

K+, Ca2+, Na+

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28
Q

increase Ca2+ ____ heart rate

A

speeds

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29
Q

increase Na+ and K+ ____ heart rate

A

reduce

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30
Q

other factors of heart rate

A

age, gender, physical fitness, body temp

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31
Q

which gender has slightly higher heart rate

A

females

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32
Q

physical fitness ___ heart rate, ___ heart

A

decrease, larger

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33
Q

high body temp, ___ rate

A

high

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34
Q

adult circulation: right heart pumps blood to

A

lung

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35
Q

adult circulation: left heart pumps ____ blood to _____

A

oxygenated, body

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36
Q

in an embryo lungs do not

A

oxygenate blood

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37
Q

embryo/fetus: blood bypasses the lungs via 2 shunts

A

foramen ovalis, ductus arteriosum

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38
Q

foramen ovalis connects

A

right with left atrium

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39
Q

foramen ovalis: most blood skips ____ going to ____

A

pulmonary circuit, left atrium

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40
Q

foramen ovalis to

A

fossa ovalis

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41
Q

ductus arteriosum

A

connects pulmonary trunk to aorta

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42
Q

ductus arteriosum bypasses

A

lungs

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43
Q

ductus arteriosum to

A

ligamentum arteriosum

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44
Q

when a baby is born and takes first breath, _____ close and blood is rerouted to _____

A

duct/foramen, lungs

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45
Q

leading cause of death

A

coronary artery disease

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46
Q

atherosclerotic plaques reduce blood flow to

A

myocardium

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47
Q

signs and symptoms of coronary artery disease

A

none, pain in chest, heart attacks, anger pectoris

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48
Q

risk factors of CAD

A

smoking, high blood pressure, diabetes, high cholesterol, obesity, family history

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49
Q

CAD treatment

A

changing diet, quit smoking, exercise, medications, by pass

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50
Q

myocardial ischemia

A

partial obstruction in coronary arteries

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51
Q

hypoxia ___ O2

A

decrease

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52
Q

myocardial infarction

A

heart attack

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53
Q

infarction

A

death of an area of tissue due to interrupted blood supply

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54
Q

treatment of myocardial infarction

A

thrombolytic, heparin, coronary angioplasty or bypass

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55
Q

pulmonary edema can cause

A

suffocation

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56
Q

peripheral edema is in

A

feet, ankles

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57
Q

congestive heart failure

A

heart can no longer pump enough blood to the body; heart overstretches

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58
Q

symptoms of congestive heart failure

A

fatigue, shortness of breath, swelling

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59
Q

stenosis

A

narrowing of the heart valve

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60
Q

insufficiency/incompetence

A

failure of the heart to close completely

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61
Q

prolapse

A

one-two cuspids protrude into LA, not serious

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62
Q

heart murmurs

A

abnormal sounds from the heart

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63
Q

hemodynamics

A

forces involved in circulating blood around body

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64
Q

artery

A

carry blood away from heart

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65
Q

arterioles

A

smaller arteries

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66
Q

capillaries

A

smallest, site of exchange

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67
Q

veins

A

carry blood to heart

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68
Q

basic blood vessel structure layers

A

tunica intima, tunica media, tunica externa

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69
Q

tunica intima

A

inner

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70
Q

tunica intima endothelium type

A

simple squamous

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71
Q

tunica media: ___ and ____ tissue

A

muscular, elastic CT

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72
Q

tunica media: smooth muscle regulates

A

diameter of lumen

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73
Q

tunica externa CT types

A

elastic, collagen

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74
Q

vasa vasorum

A

capillaries supplying blood to tissues of vessels

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75
Q

arteries: prominent layer

A

tunica media

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76
Q

veins: ___ prevent backflow

A

valves

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77
Q

veins have a great capacity to

A

expand

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78
Q

capilaries have ___ wall

A

thin

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79
Q

arteries have thick tunica ___

A

media

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80
Q

artery tunica media: ___ fibers

A

elastic

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81
Q

artery tunica media thick ___ muscle

A

smooth

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82
Q

artery tunica media smooth muscle: innervated by

A

ANS sympathetic fibers

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83
Q

artery tunica media smooth muscle: increased stimulation ____, decrease ____

A

vasoconstriction, lumen diameter

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84
Q

artery tunica media smooth muscle: decreased stimulation

A

vasodilation, increase lumen diameter

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85
Q

anastomoses provides

A

alternate routes, collateral circulation

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86
Q

anastomoses: union of branches of

A

2 or more vessels supplying the same body region

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87
Q

most regions of body receive blood through ___ artery

A

more than 1

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88
Q

types of anastomoses

A

arterial, venous, arteriovenous

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89
Q

elastic arteries are ___ arteries

A

conducting

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90
Q

elastic arteries conduct blood to

A

medium sized arteries

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91
Q

elastic arteries tunica media: ___ fibers and some ___ muscle

A

elastic, smooth

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92
Q

muscular arteries are ___ arteries

A

distributing

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93
Q

muscular arteries distribute blood to

A

organs

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94
Q

largest arteries

A

elastic

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95
Q

muscular arteries tunica media contains higher ___ and lower ____

A

smooth muscle, elastic fibers

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96
Q

muscular arteries have great ______ to adjust blood flow

A

vasoconstriction

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97
Q

smallest arteries

A

arterioles

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98
Q

metarteriole

A

terminal ends of arterioles, feed capillary bed

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99
Q

arteriole capillary beds have _____ to regulate blood flow

A

pre capillary sphincter

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100
Q

smallest blood vessel

A

capillary

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101
Q

capillary connect

A

arterial outflow and venous return

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102
Q

capillary lumen diameter

A

5-10 um

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103
Q

capillaries are ___ vessels

A

exchange

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104
Q

capillaries exchange between

A

blood and interstitial fluid and tissue cells

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105
Q

capillary: single layer of ____ cells and ____ membrane

A

endothelial, basement

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106
Q

capillaries lack tunica___ and ___

A

media, externa

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107
Q

vasomotion

A

slow and intermittent blood flow through capillary network

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108
Q

microcirculation

A

flow of blood from an arteriole to a venule through a capillary bed

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109
Q

capillary: blood can go either through ____ or ____ depending on sphincters

A

true capillaries, shunt

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110
Q

_____ if sphincters are open, ______ occurs

A

capillary beds, blood flows, exchange with tissue cells

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111
Q

____ (shunt) if sphincters are closed, blood flow bypasses______

A

thoroughfare channel, capillary bed

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112
Q

3 types of capillaries

A

continuous, fenestrated, sinusoids

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113
Q

continuous capillaries

A

endothelial cell membranes are continuous, most common type

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114
Q

fenestrated capillaries more permeable to

A

fluids and small solutes

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115
Q

sinusoids capillaries

A

wider, more widening, larger fenestrations

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116
Q

venules have ___ walls than arteries

A

thinner

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117
Q

post capillary venule: immediate downstream of

A

capillary bed

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118
Q

part of microcirculatory exchange unit with capillaries

A

post capillary venule

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119
Q

venules join to form

A

veins

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120
Q

veins have very thin ____ and large ____

A

walls, lumen

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121
Q

veins not designed to withstand

A

high pressure

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122
Q

valves aid in ___ by preventing back flow

A

venous return

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123
Q

capillary exchange

A

movement substances between blood and interstitial fluid

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124
Q

3 methods of capillary exchange

A

diffusion, transcytosis, bulk flow

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125
Q

capillary exchange: diffusion

A

respiratory gases, nutrients

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126
Q

capillary exchange: transcytosis

A

larger molecules

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127
Q

capillary exchange: bulk flow

A

fluids

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128
Q

capillary exchange: diffusion: capillaries move ___ concentration gradient

A

down

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129
Q

capillary exchange: diffusion is a ___ process

A

passive

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130
Q

O2 and nutrients diffusion: can cross ____

A

capillary wall

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131
Q

O2 and nutrients transcytosis: ___ process

A

active

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132
Q

O2 and nutrients transcytosis: vesicles: ____ and ____

A

endocytosis, exocytosis

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133
Q

large, lipid-insoluble molecules can only cross capillary walls through

A

transcytosis

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134
Q

bulk flow: movements of fluid between

A

capillaries, interstitial fluid

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135
Q

bulk flow: regulation of

A

volumes of blood and interstitial fluid

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136
Q

bulk flow is a ___ process

A

passive

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137
Q

two opposing forces of bulk flow

A

hydrostatic pressure, osmotic pressure

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138
Q

hydrostatic pressure

A

pressure of blood against blood walls

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139
Q

hydrostatic pressure: flow of fluid from plasma to interstitial fluid _____

A

filtration

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140
Q

osmotic pressure generated by

A

non diffusible plasma proteins

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141
Q

osmotic pressure _____ draw water into ____

A

non-diffusible plasma proteins, blood

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142
Q

osmotic pressure: absorption of

A

water into capillaries via osmosis

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143
Q

hydrostatic: fluid moves from ___ to ___

A

capillaries, interstitial fluid

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144
Q

osmotic: fluid moves from ___ to ____

A

interstitial, capillaries

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145
Q

at the arterial end of a capillary bed, ___ forces dominate

A

hydrostatic

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146
Q

arterial end: fluid flows

A

out of capillary

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147
Q

at the venous end: ___ forces dominate

A

osmotic

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148
Q

venous end: fluid re enters

A

capillary

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149
Q

___% off fluid filtered out of capillaries is reabsorbed

A

85

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150
Q

excess capillary fluid enters ___ capillaries

A

lymphatic

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151
Q

hemodynamics

A

blood flow, pressure, resistance

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152
Q

blood flow

A

volume of blood that flows through a vessel per minute

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153
Q

tissue perfusion

A

blood flow through body tissues

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154
Q

blood pressure

A

force exerted on a vessel wall by the blood

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155
Q

blood pressure measured

A

large arteries near heart

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156
Q

blood flows from ___ to ___ pressure

A

higher, lower

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157
Q

resistance

A

opposition to blood flow in blood vessels

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158
Q

higher resistance = ___ blood flow

A

lower

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159
Q

speed is ____ related to total cross sectional area

A

inversely

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160
Q

velocity is slowest where

A

total cross section area is greater

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161
Q

blood flow becomes ___ farther from the heart

A

slower

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162
Q

blood flow is slowest in

A

capillaries

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163
Q

blood pressure

A

force exerted on a vessel wall by blood

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164
Q

contraction of ventricles generates

A

blood pressure

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165
Q

systolic BP

A

highest pressure, during systole

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166
Q

diastolic BP

A

lowest arterial, diastole

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167
Q

pulse pressure

A

difference between systolic and diastolic BP

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168
Q

high pulse pressure is a sign of

A

anthersclerotic plaque in major arteries

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169
Q

3 components to blood pressure reading

A

systolic, diastolic, pulse pressures

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170
Q

MAP

A

mean arterial pressure: aortic pressure fluctuates

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171
Q

systemic arterial BP measured at ____ by ___

A

brachial artery, auscultation

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172
Q

pressure is increased in cuff until

A

exceed systolic pressure in artery

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173
Q

pressure is slowly released until sounds of

A

karotkoff

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174
Q

first sound heard as

A

blood starts to spurt through artery

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175
Q

kirkoff sound disappears when

A

artery no longer constricted and blood flows freely

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176
Q

normal arterial blood pressure

A

120/80

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177
Q

hypotension

A

low blood pressure

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178
Q

hypotension: pressure below ___/___

A

90/60

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179
Q

hypertension

A

high blood pressure

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180
Q

hypertension pressure over ___/___

A

140/90

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181
Q

pulse

A

pressure waves due to alternate expansion and recoil of arteries

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182
Q

vascular resistance: opposition to blood flow due to

A

friction between blood and blood vessel walls

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183
Q

vascular resistance depends on

A

blood vessel diameter, viscosity, total blood vessel length

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184
Q

total blood vessel length: resistance ___ proportional to length of vessel

A

directly

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185
Q

venous return

A

volume of blood flowing back to heart through systemic veins

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186
Q

venous return due to

A

pressure generated by contraction of LV

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187
Q

pressure difference: from ___ to ____

A

venule, RV

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188
Q

skeletal muscle pump: ___ blood in ___ direction

A

“milk”, one

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189
Q

control of blood pressure and blood flow achieved by

A

action of several interconnected negative feedback systems

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190
Q

short term: ____ and ___ regulate BP and resistance

A

nervous system, hormones

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191
Q

long term: ___ regulate blood volume

A

kidneys

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192
Q

cardiovascular center in brain is located in

A

medulla oblongata

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193
Q

medulla oblongata receives input from

A

both higher brain regions and sensory receptors

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194
Q

cardiac centers regulate

A

heart rate

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195
Q

cardio____ active at rest

A

inhibitory

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196
Q

cardio ___ active during stress

A

stimulatory

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197
Q

vasomotor center

A

control blood vessel diameter via vasomotor fibers

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198
Q

input to cardiovascular center

A

reflexes

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199
Q

baroreceptors

A

monitor pressure changes and stretch in blood vessel

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200
Q

chemoreceptors monitor concentration of _____, ____, ____

A

O2, CO2, other chemicals in blood

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201
Q

output from cardiovascular center reaches

A

neurons of autonomic nervous system

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202
Q

baroreceptor reflexes

A

help maintain blood pressure homeostasis

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203
Q

baroreceptor reflexes: ___ sensitive neural receptors in ______

A

pressure, large arteries in neck and chest

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204
Q

baroreceptor reflex stimulus

A

blood pressure rises> stretch baroreceptor, send impulse to cardiovascular systtem

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205
Q

decrease cardio-stimulatory and vasomotor center

A

vasodilation

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206
Q

increase parasympathetic stimulation»____ heart rate

A

decreased

207
Q

baroreceptor reflexes return

A

to normal blood pressure levels

208
Q

chemoreceptor reflexes: located close to

A

baroreceptors

209
Q

chemoreceptor reflexes located close to

A

baroreceptors

210
Q

chemoreceptor reflexes: detect ___, ____, ___

A

hypoxia, hypercapnia, acidosis

211
Q

chemoreceptor reflexes has a larger role in regulating

A

breathing rate

212
Q

hormones help regulate BP and blood flow by

A

altering CO, blood volume, vasoconstriction

213
Q

renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system ___ BP

A

increase, vasoconstriction

214
Q

epinephrine/adrenaline and norepinephrine/noradrenalin ___BP

A

increase

215
Q

antidiuretic hormone __ BP

A

increase

216
Q

atrial natriuretic peptide __ BP

A

decrease

217
Q

kidneys maintain BP homeostasis by

A

altering blood volume

218
Q

kidneys: stimulus: increase blood volume > __ BP: kidneys ___ more water

A

increase, eliminate

219
Q

kidneys: stimulus: blood loss> __ BP: kidneys ___ more water

A

decrease, retain

220
Q

auto regulation: ___ regulation of blood vessel diameter

A

local

221
Q

local regulation independent of

A

neuronal and hormonal control

222
Q

local regulation allows organs to

A

regulate their own blood flow

223
Q

metabolic control

A

adjust blood flow to match metabolic demands

224
Q

metabolic control: low o2 high co2: vascular smooth muscle ___–> __ blood flow

A

relax, increase

225
Q

tabloid control also controls ___ in brain

A

regional blood flow

226
Q

shock

A

life threatening medical condition

227
Q

common symptom of circulatory shock

A

low BP

228
Q

hypovolemic shock

A

decreased blood volume

229
Q

vascular shock

A

blood volume is normal, extreme vasodilation

230
Q

anaphylactic shock

A

allergic reaction

231
Q

septic shock caused by

A

bacteria

232
Q

shock signs and symptoms

A

systolic BP <90, rapid heart rate, weak pulse, rapid/shallow breathing, weakness, dizziness, fainting, pale cold skin

233
Q

lifestyle changes for hypertension

A

lose weight, exercise, limit alcohol, reduce Na intake, dont smoke, manage stress

234
Q

2 main circulation

A

pulmonary, systemic

235
Q

venous system: regions inferior to diaphragm: drained by ____

A

superior vena cava

236
Q

venous system: regions superior to diaphragm: drained by ____

A

superior vena cava

237
Q

venous system: regions superior to diaphragm: drained by ____

A

superior vena cava

238
Q

blood passes from systemic veins to artery only after

A

passing through lungs

239
Q

hepatic portal directs blood from ___ to ___

A

parts og GI, liver

240
Q

veins drain digestive system into a common vessel

A

hepatic portal vein

241
Q

hepatic portal: transport blood into live ___ it goes to the heart

A

before

242
Q

toxins degraded in

A

liver

243
Q

many drugs absorbed through GI tract are metabolized by __ before reaching ___

A

liver, general circulation

244
Q

the liver is drained by ___ that enter the ____

A

hepatic veins, inf vena cava

245
Q

main arteries of head and neck

A

right internal carotid, right subclavian, right external carotid, right common carotid, brachiocephalic trunk

246
Q

main arteries of the arm

A

right subclavican, right axillary, right brachial, radial, ulnar

247
Q

main abdominal arteries

A

thoracic aorta, left renal, abdominal aorta, left common iliac

248
Q

main arteries leg

A

common iliac, internal iliac, external iliac, femoral, popliteal, anterior tibial, posterior tibial

249
Q

3 main functions of lymphatic system

A

drain excess interstitial fluid, defense against pathogens, transport dietary lipids

250
Q

3 parts of lymphatic system

A

lymphatic vessels, lymph, lymphoid organs

251
Q

lymph

A

clear, colorless fluid derived from blood

252
Q

lymphoid organs

A

lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils

253
Q

lymphatic vessels and lymph circulation: lymphatic ____–lymphatic ____–_____–unite to form ___ and ___–drain into _____

A

capillaries, vessels, lymph nodes, trunks, ducts, venous blood

254
Q

lymphatic capillaries unique ____ structure

A

one way

255
Q

lymph flows ___ heart

A

towards

256
Q

interstitial fluid flow moves __ not ___

A

in, out

257
Q

metastasis

A

spread of malignant tumor

258
Q

functions of lymphatic vessels (3)

A

drain excess interstitial fluid, produce lymphocytes, transport dietary lipids

259
Q

ore fluid filters ____ of capillaries than ___

A

out, reabsorption

260
Q

lymph transport sporadic and

A

slow

261
Q

lymph transport pumps to/for(2)

A

skeletal muscle, respiratory

262
Q

natural killer cells

A

attack, destroy foreign, transplanted/infected cells

263
Q

t cells

A

manage immune response, attack and destroy foreign cells

264
Q

b cells

A

produce plasma cells, secrete antibodies, neutralize bacteria/viruses

265
Q

acrophages, dendritic cells, reticular cells

A

phagocytose, antigen-presentation

266
Q

primary/central lymphatic organs: stem cells divide> _____; ___ bone marrow, ___ cell

A

lymphocytes, red, T

267
Q

secondary/peripheral lymphatic organs: ___ response; (5) organs

A

immune; lymph nodes, tonsils, adenoids, spleen, MALTS

268
Q

MALTS

A

mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue

269
Q

maturation site for T cells

A

thymus

270
Q

thymus __ with age

A

shrinks

271
Q

lymph nodes embedded in

A

clusters along lymphatic vessels

272
Q

lymph nodes structure

A

cortex, medulla

273
Q

lymph node function

A

filter lymph, immune system activation

274
Q

filter lymph: ____ trapped and destroyed by ____

A

foreign material, macrophages

275
Q

immune system activation: lymphocytes encounter __, activated to ____

A

Ag, mount attack

276
Q

largest lymphoid organ

A

spleen

277
Q

spleen is located in

A

left hypochondriac region

278
Q

spleen capsule function

A

protective

279
Q

spleen white pulp function

A

lymphocytes>immune response

280
Q

spleen red pulp function

A

blood cleansing: disposal of worn out cells

281
Q

spleen: production of ___ during fetal life

A

RBS

282
Q

effects of spleen rupture

A

decreased immune function, higher chance of sepsis

283
Q

MALT: lymphatic nodules- no ____

A

capsule

284
Q

MALT located

A

mucous membranes lining GI, urinary, reproductive, respiratory tract

285
Q

MALT function

A

filter//destroy bacterial from lymph

286
Q

immune system can be ___/___or ___/ ___

A

innate, nonspecific, adaptive, specific

287
Q

innate immunity: cells recognize and respond to pathogen in a ___ manner

A

non specific

288
Q

innate provides ___ immunity but not ____

A

immediate, long lasting

289
Q

innate most important mechanism

A

inflammation

290
Q

innate first line of defense

A

skin and mucous membranes

291
Q

innate second line of defense

A

chemical/cellular

292
Q

innate first line physical barriers

A

epidermis, mucous membrane, hair, cilia of upper respiratory tract

293
Q

innate first line secretion

A

enzymes, acidity, other chemicals in skin, mucosa, fluids

294
Q

innate second line antimicrobial substances

A

interferons, complement

295
Q

interferons

A

interfere with viral replication

296
Q

protein cascade in blood plasma enhances

A

immune reactions

297
Q

innate second line cellular defenses: cells that wander around tissues and attack ______ cells

A

infected/abnormal

298
Q

innate second line cellular defenses include

A

NK cells, phagocytes, inflammation

299
Q

inflammation: ___ defense mechanism

A

innate

300
Q

inflammation: ____ defensive response of body to tissue damage

A

nonspecific

301
Q

inflammation triggered when

A

body tissues are injured or infected

302
Q

inflammation function

A

dispose microbes, alert adaptive immune system, prepare for tissue repair

303
Q

signs and symptoms of acute inflammation

A

redness, pain, heat, swelling

304
Q

inflammatory chemicals diffuse from

A

injury site

305
Q

stages of inflammation

A

inflammatory chemicals diffuse, vasodilation, emigration of macrophages, chemotaxis, phagocytosis, leukocytosis, tissue repair

306
Q

pyrexia

A

fever

307
Q

fever advantages

A

intensifies effects of interferons, inhibit microbe growth, speed tissue repair

308
Q

fever is high over

A

105

309
Q

high fever dangerous because

A

denatures enzymes

310
Q

adaptive immunity specificity for

A

particular foreign molecules/antigens

311
Q

adaptive immunity has memory for

A

second encounter prompts more rapid/vigorous response

312
Q

2 types of adaptive immunity

A

cell-mediated, anti-body mediated

313
Q

cell mediated and antibody mediated defense against

A

specific invading agents

314
Q

adaptive immunity ____ than innate immunity

A

longer

315
Q

adaptive immunity needs priming by

A

antigen

316
Q

antigen

A

foreign substances that provoke an immune response

317
Q

3 types of adaptive immunity cells

A

t lymphocyte, b lymphocyte/plasma cell, APC

318
Q

t lymphocyte

A

cell mediated immunity

319
Q

b lymphocyte/plasma cells

A

antibody mediated/humoral immunity

320
Q

APC

A

antigen presenting cell, aid immune response

321
Q

____ trigger production of antibodies

A

antigens

322
Q

immunogenicity

A

ability to provoke immune response

323
Q

entire ___ or parts of ___ may act as an antigen

A

microbe

324
Q

epitopes

A

small parts of large antigen molecule that triggers response

325
Q

cell mediated: cytotoxic T cells ___ attack _____

A

directly, invading antigens

326
Q

antibody mediated: b cells transform into ____, make _____

A

plasma cells, antibodies/immunoglobulins

327
Q

antibody mediates against pathogens in fluids ___ cell

A

outside

328
Q

each B cell plasma produces antibodies against ___ epitope(s)

A

one

329
Q

helper t cells aid in

A

both cell and antibody mediated

330
Q

C proteins allow

A

differentiation between our cells and those that are foreign

331
Q

MHC proteins found on ____ of cells

A

surface

332
Q

MHC I on ____ cells: ___-antigens

A

all body, self

333
Q

MHC II on ___ cells

A

immune

334
Q

MHC help t cells with

A

recognizing foreign or self antigens

335
Q

infected cells: MHC proteins display fragments on ____ which mobilize immune cells

A

foreign antigens

336
Q

b cells antibodies can recognize and ____ bind to antigens

A

directly

337
Q

cells must be presented with

A

processed antigens

338
Q

antigen presentation: antigen presenting cell signals

A

presence of a foreign particle

339
Q

antigen presenting cells

A

macrophages, dendritic cells, b lymphocytes

340
Q

lymphocytes originate from

A

homeopoetic cells in red bone marrow

341
Q

b cells mature in

A

red bone marrow

342
Q

t cells mature in

A

thymus

343
Q

b and t cells become activated in

A

secondary lymphatic tissues where they encounter their antigen

344
Q

each type of lymphocyte forms

A

clone of identical cells

345
Q

lymphocytes originate from ____ cells in ___ bone marrow and then are _____

A

hemopoietic, red, educated

346
Q

lymphocytes become

A

immuno competent

347
Q

inactive t lymphocytes recognize ___ combined with ____

A

antigens, MHC

348
Q

costimulation by LL2 released by _____

A

helper t cells

349
Q

active cytotoxic t cells attack

A

infected body cells

350
Q

memory cytotoxic t cells wait for

A

antigen to appear again

351
Q

cytotoxic t cells migrate out from

A

secondary lymphatic tissues and organs

352
Q

cytotoxic t cells seek out and destroy

A

infected target cells, cancer cells, transplanted cells

353
Q

method used to kill cells

A

release molecules that cause death of infected body cells

354
Q

molecules that cause death of infected body cells

A

granzyme, perforin, gamma interferon

355
Q

antigen binds ___ to b cell receptor

A

directly

356
Q

plasma cells stay in _____, secrete _____

A

II lymphatic organs, antibodies

357
Q

plasma cells: antibodies circulate in ___ to reach site of ___

A

lymph to reach site of invasion

358
Q

memory b cells do n ot secrete

A

antibodies

359
Q

next time antigen appears, memory b cells can

A

proliferate and differentiate within hours

360
Q

antibody titer

A

measure of immunological memory

361
Q

antibody ___ antigen

A

neutralize

362
Q

agglutination

A

clumping

363
Q

antibodies immobilize ___ and enhance ___

A

bacteria, phagocytosis

364
Q

cascade

A

one reaction triggers another until c3 is activated

365
Q

vaccines

A

substances that stimulate production of memory cells

366
Q

passive immunity

A

transferring antibodies from individual who previously had a disease to a newly infected individual

367
Q

graft rejection

A

when the immune system recognizes the proteins in the transplanted organ as foreign and mount both a cell mediated and antibody mediated immune response

368
Q

autoimmune disease

A

lost ability to recognize self from foreign

369
Q

multiple sclerosis destroys

A

myelin of brain and spinal cord

370
Q

rheumatoid arthritis destroys

A

joints

371
Q

systemic lupus erythematosus organs

A

heart, kidneys, skin, lungs

372
Q

main function of respiratory system

A

supply body with oxygen and dispose CO2

373
Q

4 processes of respiration

A

inspiration/expiration, gas exchange air/blood, transport respiratory gases, gas exchange blood/tissues

374
Q

upper respiratory system includes

A

nose, pharynx, associated structures

375
Q

lower respiratory system includes

A

larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs

376
Q

conducting zone

A

conducts air into lungs

377
Q

conducting zone parts

A

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

378
Q

respiratory zone

A

main site gas exchange

379
Q

respiratory zone parts

A

respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli

380
Q

external nose

A

nostrils, nares

381
Q

internal nose

A

septum, conchae, hairs

382
Q

respiratory mucosa

A

lines nasal cavity

383
Q

respiratory mucosa tissue type

A

ciliated columnar epithelium

384
Q

olfactory mucosa

A

roof of nasal cavity

385
Q

aranasal sinuses

A

lighten the skull, moisten air

386
Q

connects nasal cavity and mouth, superior to larynx

A

pharynx

387
Q

deglutition

A

contraction of skeletal muscles>food down

388
Q

pharynx functions

A

passageway for air and food, resonating chamber, houses tonsils

389
Q

parts of pharynx

A

nasopharynx, oropharynx, laryngopharynx

390
Q

nasopharynx passage for

A

air

391
Q

oropharynx passage for

A

air, food

392
Q

laryngopharynx passage for

A

air, food

393
Q

supportive passageway connecting laryngopharynx with trachea

A

larynx

394
Q

voice box

A

larynx

395
Q

larynx functions

A

open airway, route air and food, voice production

396
Q

adams apple

A

thyroid cartilage

397
Q

cartilage in larynx

A

thyroid, cricoid, epiglottis

398
Q

epiglottis

A

close air passage during swallowing

399
Q

larynx ciliated epithelium function

A

move trapped particles up towards pharynx

400
Q

vocal folds/cords

A

ligaments connecting cartilages through which air passes

401
Q

false vocal cords

A

ventricular folds

402
Q

true vocal cords

A

vocal folds

403
Q

vocal folds move ____/____, ____/____

A

together, apart, elongate, shorten

404
Q

intermittent release of expired air as glottis opens/closes

A

speech

405
Q

length and tension of vocal folds creates

A

pitch

406
Q

vocal fold: greater force> ____ sound

A

louder

407
Q

anterior to esophagus

A

trachea

408
Q

trachea is from ____ to ____

A

larynx, bronchi

409
Q

heimlich manewer

A

dislodge an obstructing piece of food

410
Q

trachea layers

A

mucosa, submucosa, hyaline cartilage

411
Q

trachea mucosa: _____ epithelium with ___ cells

A

pseudostratified ciliated, goblet

412
Q

trachea: __ shaped rings of ___ cartilage

A

C, hyaline

413
Q

___ bronchi>____>____>____ bronchioles >____bronchioles >_____

A

primary, secondary, tertiary, terminal, respiratory, alveolar ducts

414
Q

site of gas exchange

A

alveoli

415
Q

bronchi: incomplete ___ rings become irregular ____then disappear

A

cartilage, plates cartilage

416
Q

bronchi: as cartilage decreases ____ increases. can close off airways causing

A

smooth muscle, asthma attack

417
Q

terminal bronchioles branch into

A

respiratory bronchioles

418
Q

respiratorry bronchioles divide into

A

alveolar ducts

419
Q

type 1 alveolar cells

A

main site gas exchange

420
Q

type 2 alveolar cells

A

secrete surfactant (alveolar fluid)

421
Q

alveolar fluid function

A

reduce tendency to collapse

422
Q

respiratory membrane

A

exchange o2 and co2

423
Q

respiratory membrane parts

A

alveolar wall, epithelial basement membrane, capillary basement membrane, capillary endothelium

424
Q

lungs are between ___ and ___

A

diaphragm, clavicle

425
Q

each lung enclosed by

A

double layered pleura

426
Q

parietal pleura

A

lines walls of thoracic cavity

427
Q

visceral pleura

A

cover lungs

428
Q

pleural cavity

A

space between layers

429
Q

pleural fluid

A

reduce friction

430
Q

left lung 10% smaller because of

A

cardidac notch

431
Q

right lung __ lobes left lung __ lobes

A

3,2

432
Q

lobes divided in

A

lobules

433
Q

air pressure differences drive

A

air flow

434
Q

when air pressure in lungs is less then pressure in atmosphere air moves

A

in

435
Q

boyles law

A

pressure of a gas in closed container is inversely proportional to volume of container

436
Q

inhalation is an ___ process

A

active

437
Q

inhalation contraction of which (2) muscles

A

diaphragm, external intercostals

438
Q

diaphragm __% of air

A

75

439
Q

intercostals __% air

A

25

440
Q

inhalation: as lung volume increases, pressure

A

decreases

441
Q

when pressure in lungs is greater than atmospheric pressure air

A

exits

442
Q

expiration is a ___ process

A

passive

443
Q

expiration only active during

A

forceful breathing

444
Q

expiration pressure up volume

A

down

445
Q

factors affecting airflow rate

A

surface tension, lung compliance, airway resistance

446
Q

surface tension of alveolar fluid causes

A

smallest possible size of alveoli

447
Q

lung compliance

A

how easily the lungs stretch

448
Q

higher compliance = lung and chest wall expands

A

easily

449
Q

airway resistance regulated by

A

airway diameter, smooth muscle tone

450
Q

bronchoconstriction

A

asthma

451
Q

infant respiratory distress syndrome

A

breathing disorder of premature newborns

452
Q

tidal volume

A

volume of one breath

453
Q

inspiratory reserve volume

A

maximum amount of air that can be forcefully inhaled

454
Q

expiratory reserve volume

A

maximum amount of air that can be forcefully exhaled

455
Q

reserve volume

A

air remaining in lungs after expiratory reserve volume exhaled

456
Q

vital capacity

A

total amount of exchangeable air

457
Q

total lung capacity

A

sum of all lung volumes: vital capacity+residual volume

458
Q

only about 70% of tidal volume reaches the

A

respiratory zone

459
Q

antomical dead space

A

30% of remaining tidal volume in conducting zone

460
Q

minute ventilation

A

total amount of gas that flows in and out in one minute

461
Q

alveolar ventilation rate

A

measures effective ventilation: volume of air per min that reaches respiratory zone

462
Q

henrys law

A

gas dissolves in liquid in proportion to its partial pressure

463
Q

CO2 is 24 times more soluble than

A

o2

464
Q

high temp decreases

A

solubility

465
Q

external respiration diffusion of o2 from air to ___ and opposite for co2

A

blood

466
Q

external respiration: o2 diffuses from ____ into blood of ____ capillaries

A

alveolar air, pulmonary

467
Q

external respiration: CO2 diffuses from ___ blood into ___ air

A

deoxygenated, alveolar

468
Q

internal respiration is in

A

tissues

469
Q

internal and external respiration driven by

A

partial pressure gradients

470
Q

internal respiration: O2 diffuses from ___ capillary blood to ___ cells

A

systemic, tissue

471
Q

internal respiration: co2 diffuses from __ cells into ___ capillaries

A

tissue, systemic

472
Q

internal respiration: at rest ___% of available o2 is used

A

25

473
Q

rate of pulmonary and systemic gas exchange effected by

A

partial pressure, respiratory membrane, molecular weight and solubility

474
Q

____ Po2 must be higher than ____ pco2 for diffusion

A

alveolar, blood

475
Q

oxygen transport __ solubility: 1.5% dissolved in

A

low, plasma

476
Q

oxygen transport: 98.5 bound to

A

hemoglobin

477
Q

1 hemoglobin > __ o2

A

4

478
Q

HbO2

A

oxyhemoglobin

479
Q

HHB

A

deoxyhemoglobin

480
Q

proportion of Hb saturated with

A

O2`

481
Q

the higher the Po2, the ___ Pco2 combines with Hb

A

more

482
Q

oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve: pulmonary capillaries: po2 ___

A

high

483
Q

oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve: tissues: po2 ___

A

low

484
Q

most important factor the determines the % O saturation of hemoglobin

A

Po2

485
Q

affinty

A

% oxygen saturation of hemoglobin

486
Q

increase of factors> ___ shift in affinity curve

A

right

487
Q

factors for affinity

A

acidity, pco2, temp, bpg

488
Q

low Hb affinity for 02> ___ oxygen unloading

A

enhance

489
Q

fetal Hb: hemoglobin has ___ affinity for oxygen, shifts to ___

A

high, left

490
Q

fetal: when po2 is low, Hb-f can carry up to __% more oxygen

A

30

491
Q

affinity chart: shift to left=

A

higher affinity for oxygen

492
Q

co2 is transported in the blood as

A

dissolved co2, carbamino compounds, bicarbonate ions

493
Q

dissolved co2 __% in blood plasma

A

7

494
Q

20% of carbamino compounds combine with ____

A

globin of Hb

495
Q

70% of CO2 is transported in plasma as

A

bicarbonate ions, HCO3-

496
Q

CO2 + H2O <-> H2CO3 <-> H+ + HCO3-

A

chloride shift

497
Q

as blood picks up CO2, HCO3- accumulates in ___ then diffuses into ___ and carried to ____

A

RBC, plasma, lungs

498
Q

to balance loss of negative ions, Cl- moves into ___ from___

A

RBC, plasma

499
Q

neural mechanisms-___ centers

A

respiratory

500
Q

neural mechanisms are

A

involuntary

501
Q

neural mechanisms: clusters of neurons located in ___ and ___

A

medulla oblungata, pons of brainstem

502
Q

regulation of respiratory centers: ____ influences from cerebral cortex

A

cortical

503
Q

chemical factors: ___ receptors

A

chemo

504
Q

central and peripheral chemoreceptors sense ___ and ___ and connect with ___

A

H+, pCO2, respiratory centers

505
Q

most powerful respiratory stimulant

A

elevated CO2

506
Q

respiratory and hematopoietic adjustments to altitude

A

acclimatization

507
Q

acute mountain sickness ___ feet

A

800

508
Q

minute ventilation and RBC numbers___ in acclimatization

A

increases

509
Q

asthma: airway ______, _____

A

inflammation, hypersensitivity

510
Q

emphysema

A

destruction of the walls of the alveoli

511
Q

chronic bronchitis

A

excessive secretion of bronchial mucus accompanied by a long-lasting cough

512
Q

nicotine constricts ____ which ___ airflow to lungs

A

terminal bronchioles, decreases

513
Q

COPD may be

A

emphysema or chronic bronchitis

anatomy 1 (3 decks)

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