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Vertebrate Anatomy > Final Exam > Flashcards

Final Exam Flashcards

1
Q

What are the 4 major types of tissue?

A

Epithelium, connective tissue, muscle tissue, and nervous tissue

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2
Q

Where in the body can epithelium be found?

A

Nasal passages, esophagus, lungs, kidney, intestine, urinary tract (lines hollow organs that are in contact with outside environment)

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3
Q

What is the surface of epithelial tissue comprised of?

A

Epithelium and basement membrane

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4
Q

What are the arrangements of cell layers in the epithelial tissue?

A

Simple (single layer), Pseudostatified (one layer but appears not to be because nuclei do not line up), and stratified (consist of 2 or more layers)

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5
Q

What are the different cells’ shapes of epithelial tissue?

A

Squamous (thin for quick exchange), cuboidal (tall as they are wide and used for secretion or absorption), Columnar (tall and skinny and are more specialized for secretion or absorption), and Transitional (change size from squamous to cuboidal back and forth)

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6
Q

What are the two types of glands?

A

Endocrine (secrete hormones enter interstitial fluid
and then diffuse directly into bloodstream) and exocrine (secrete products into ducts that empty
onto the surface of a covering and lining epithelium
like skin or lumen of organ.)

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7
Q

What are the two types of exocrine glands?

A

Unicellular or multicellular

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8
Q

What are the 4 types of epithelial membranes?

A

Mucous, Serous, Cutaneous, Synovial

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9
Q

What do mucous membranes do within the body?

A

Lines body cavity that opens directly with the external environment. Produced via goblet cells. Has some enzymes within it to aid in digestion

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10
Q

What do serious membranes do within the body?

A

Line organs within a cavity. Made up of partial and visceral layers

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11
Q

What does the cutaneous membrane do within the body?

A

Covers entire body surface. Composed of epidermis and dermis.

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12
Q

What does the cutaneous membrane do within the body?

A

Covers entire body surface. Composed of epidermis and dermis.

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13
Q

What are synovial membranes used for within the body?

A

Lines cavities of freely moveable joints. Contains synovial fluid

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14
Q

What is connective tissue?

A

Most abundant and distributed in the body. Highly vascularized

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15
Q

What are the two elements of connective tissue?

A

Extracellular matrix and cells

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16
Q

What are the different types of cells found within connective tissue?

A

Fibroblasts (fat cells that secrete collagen)
Macrophages (engulf bacteria and cellular debris)
Plasma cells (help in immune response)
Mast Cells (help supply tissue with blood)
Adipocytes (store triglycerides)
White blood cells

Fuck my pretty massive ass wendy

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17
Q

What are the different types of connective tissue?

A

Loose, dense, cartilage, bone, and liquid

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18
Q

What is the difference between external and internal respiration?

A

External -o2 and co2 exchange between external environment and body cells (breathing)

Internal - cells use o2 for ATP production (cellular respiration)

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19
Q

What is the difference between uni and bi-directional flow?

A

Unidirectional air moves in one direction while in bidirectional air moves in two directions (back out the way it came)

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20
Q

What are the different types of respiratory pumps?

A

Cilia, ram ventilation (muscles), Dual pump (water flows over gills unidirectionally), buccal pump (air ventilation), and Aspiration pump (air sucked in by pressure using thorax- bidirectional flow)

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21
Q

What are some primary organs for respiration in vertebrates?

A

external and internal gills, swim bladders or lungs, skin, and mucuous

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22
Q

What is cutaneous respiration?

A

Diffusion through skin

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23
Q

How do gill types differentiate among fish?

A

Agnaths have pouched gills, cartilaginous fish have gill slits, and boney fish have an operculum over their gills,

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24
Q

What is the nervous system divided into?

A

Central nervous system (brain and spine) and peripheral nervous system (Everything else)

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25
Q

What is the peripheral nervous system divided into?

A

Somatic and autonomic nervous system

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26
Q

What is the autonomic nervous system divided into?

A

Sympathetic (fight or flight) and parasympathetic (calm) nervous systems

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27
Q

What are the two types of matter in the brain?

A

White (communication) vs grey (processing- cell bodies) matter

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28
Q

How are the lobes of the brain named?

A

What region of the skull it lies below

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29
Q

What is cerebrospinal fluid?

A

Fluid plasma baths brain and spinal cord. Gives protection and waste removal.

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30
Q

What are the 3 main areas of the gross anatomy of the brain?

A

Gyrus (wrinke), sulcus (seperates lobes), Fissure (large sulcus)

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31
Q

What are the three layers of the meninges (covering of the brain)?

A

Dura (periosteal and meningeal) (has tough fibrous connective tissue) , arachnoid (lots of blood vessels, nerves, and spinal fluid), pia (rich in blood, nerve, and spinal fluid supply)

DAP

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32
Q

What nerves take in stimuli and carry out responses?

A

Afferent (bring in) and efferent (carry out) nerves

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33
Q

What are three types of sensations from general sense organs?

A

Touch, temperature, and proprioception

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34
Q

How do we receive stimuli?

A

Special nerve cells transduces one form of energy into chemicals

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35
Q

What are the different types of general sensory organs?

A

Free sensory receptors , encapsulated sensory receptors, associated sensory receptors (wrapped around another organ)

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36
Q

What are 3 types of associated sensory receptors?

A

Proprioception, muscle spindles, golgi tendon organs

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37
Q

What are some special sensory organs?

A

Chemoreceptors, nasal passages, vomeronasal area, mouth, radiation receptors, photoreceptors, infrared receptors, mechanoreceptors, vestibular apparatus, auditory system,

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38
Q

What are the three components of olfaction?

A

Olfactory epithelium, olfactory bulb, olfactory tract

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39
Q

What are the three layers of the mammal eye?

A

Sclera, choroid, and retina

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40
Q

What does the retina do?

A

Houses the sensory cells in the eye

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41
Q

Are eyes different from fish to tetrapods?

A

Yes because different mediums affect light hitting eye

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42
Q

What do pupils do?

A

Let certain amounts of light in

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43
Q

Diurnal retina?

A

signal bipolar with single neuron

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44
Q

Nocturnal retina?

A

photoreceptors cells coverage on a small number of interneurons

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45
Q

Monocular vs binocular?

A

Monocular
Biocular (important for depth perception with both eyes)

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46
Q

What is an arterie?

A

carry blood away from the heart. have muscular elastic walls. branch to arterioles and eventually to capillaries

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47
Q

What is a capillary?

A

Have a very thin wall (quick diffusion) in order to facilitate the exchange between blood and cells.

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48
Q

What is a vein?

A

Come from the venuole that carries blood back to the heart. Elastic but less muscle in walls

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49
Q

What is a heart?

A

muscular pump to pump blood to all the cells of the body. Contains a pacemaker to regulate beating (also dependent on autonomous nervous system)

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50
Q

What are skeletal pumps?

A

Muscles within the body help push the low-pressure blood back to the heart.

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51
Q

What makes blood red?

A

Hemoglobin (and iron within it)

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52
Q

Do mammal red blood cells have a nucleus?

A

No

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53
Q

What is pericardium?

A

out sac of the heart

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54
Q

What are the layer of the pericardium?

A

Fibrous and serous (visceral and parietal)

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55
Q

What do mammals and birds have that make them better at taking in oxygen?

A

Pulmonary trunk and aoritic trunk

56
Q

What is the coronary artery?

A

Artery that gives the heart blood

57
Q

What is a septum in a mammal heart?

A

Divides ventricle into two

58
Q

What are valves used for in a mammal heart?

A

To prevent blood from flowing backwards

59
Q

What is the lymphatic system used for?

A

filters blood and stores white blood cells. Also used for absorbing excess fluid

60
Q

What is a buccal cavity?

A

Houses teeth, tongue, and palate

61
Q

What is the alimentary canal?

A

Houses the esophagus, stomach, intestine, cloaca, and anus

62
Q

What are the different the different muscle types?

A

Smooth, skeletal, and cardiac

63
Q

What are sphincters made of?

A

Smooth muscle, controls the flow of things

64
Q

Smooth muscle characteristics?

A

Spindle shaped
single nucleus
Long actin and myosin filaments
Lattice framework for actin and mysosin
Involuntary

65
Q

Cardiac muscle characteristics?

A

Voluntary
striated
multinucleated
Cylindrical

66
Q

Skeletal muscle characteristics?

A

Intercalated discs
single nucleus
involuntary
striated

67
Q

What are some factors that affect muscle function?

A

Tension, fibre orientation, stored energy

68
Q

What are the different muscle shapes?

A

Parallel- light load over long distance
Pennate -help attach tendons

69
Q

What is the origin and what is the insertion?

A

Origin - fixed point (bone)
Insertion -bone that’s being moved

70
Q

What are the two states of muscle?

A

Contracted or relaxed

71
Q

What are the two functional groups of muscles?

A

Agonists (work together in the same direction)
Antagonist (opposing movements)

72
Q

What are myomeres and myosepta?

A

Myomeres a chunks of muscle for the locomotion of fish and myosepta connect myomeres together and to the axial skeleton.

73
Q

What does the hypaxial musculature attach to in tetrapods?

A

Ribs

74
Q

Whats the difference between intrinsic and extrinsic muscles?

A

Intrinsic- within the dermis and made of smooth muscle (birds and mammals)

Extrinsic- originate on skeleton and insert on dermis (moves skin)

75
Q

What do muscles split and divide in the appendicular skeleton?

A

Pectoral and pelvic girdles

76
Q

What are the different types of muscle movements?

A

Abductors- move part away from midline
 Adductors- towards midline
 Flexors- reduce the angle between body parts
 Extensors- increase the angle
 Protractors- move forward
 Retractors- backward or withdraw
 Levators- elevate body part
 Depressors- lower body part

77
Q

What do muscle cells convert?

A

Chemical energy into mechanical energy.

78
Q

What is the anatomy of a skeletal muscle?

A

myofibrals makes up muscle fibres . Muscle fibres make up fasicles which are connected to form the muscle. Connective tissue separate layers to prevent then muscle from bursting

79
Q

What is found within myofibrils?

A

Actin and myosin. Guards around actin when muscle is at rest. Guards disappear with presence of atp and calcium. Triggered by action potential. Myosin binds with actin using atp causing a sliding motion and the muscle to contract.

80
Q

What side of the heart goes to wear?

A

Right side takes blood and pumps to lungs and left side takes and pumps to body

81
Q

What are coronary arteries and cardiac veins?

A

Coronary arteries bring blood to heart while cardiac veins take blood away

82
Q

What is a renal portal system and what organisms possess it?

A

Amphibians reptiles and birds
Drains things to kidney

83
Q

What is a hepatic portal system?

A

Similar in all
vertebrates; drains
stomach, pancreas,
intestine, spleen &
terminates in
capillaries of liver.

84
Q

What does the lymphatic system do?

A

Gets rid of waste and aids in immune response

85
Q

What are the different types of respiration pumps?

A

Ram ventilation (cartilaginous fish- movement aids in breathing)
Dual Pump (boney fish-movement of buccal and operculum aids in breathing)
Buccal Pump (Ray-finned and amphibian- air ventilation through mouth)
Aspiration pump (lizards-birds-air sucked in with pressure from thorax (bidirectional flow)

86
Q

What are the different gill types of aquatic vertebrates?

A

Pouched gills (agnaths)
Septal gills (cartilaginous fishes)
Opercular gills (boney fish)
External gills (larval amphibians)

87
Q

What are the only organisms without swim bladders of lungs?

A

agnaths, cartilaginous fishes, and some boney fish

88
Q

What was the use of the swim bladder before respirations?

A

Help with fish boyancy

89
Q

What do catilaginous fish have instead of a swim bladder to help them stay boyant?

A

Oily liver

90
Q

What happens to swim bladder in lungfish?

A

They become paired

91
Q

What special structure do mammals have to prevent food to enter the lungs?

A

Epiglottis

92
Q

What does the trachea break into?

A

2 Bronchi

93
Q

Instead of a larynx, what do birds have?

A

Syrinx

94
Q

What are faveoli?

A

Non-terminal sites for gas exchange within the lungs of reptiles (honeycomb appearance)

95
Q

What do amphibian lungs look like?

A

Two simple sacs where pressure of cavity allows for gas exchange

96
Q

What do reptile lungs look like?

A

Simple lung sacs with lots of chambers (unidirectional flow)

97
Q

What do mammal lungs look like?

A

Multichambered and divided into lobes. Bidirectional flow. Diaphram facilitates in negative pressure for greater gas exchange

98
Q

What do bird lungs look like?

A

Unidirectional flow and airsacs used. Most efficient lung system

99
Q

How do vertebrates modify their digestive system to accommodate their diet?

A

Balance of cell proliferation and cell loss. This is maintained through under/over production of mucous

100
Q

What are the main subdivisions of the digestive system?

A

Oral cavity, pharynx, esophagus, stomatch, s + l interstine, and anus (or cloaca)

101
Q

What are the accessory organs in the digestive system?

A

tounge, teeth, oral glands, pancreas, liver, and gallbladder

102
Q

What are the 3 regions found in the digestive system of the fish?

A

Foregut, midgut, and hindgut

103
Q

What processes occur during digestion?

A

Mechanical (mastication and peristalsis) and chemical (via enzymes and acids) breakdown

104
Q

What is a spiral valve?

A

Corkscrew region of the small intestine of cartilaginous fish to increase surface area

105
Q

What is the crop, proventriculus, and gizzard in birds?

A

Crop is used for temporary storage of food, the proventriculus connects the crop to the gizzard and secretes enzymes for digestion, and the gizzard mechanically grinds up food

106
Q

What do herbivores have to help them digest cellulose?

A

4 chambered stomach, microorganisms, and fermentation

107
Q

What is a cecum?

A

Pocket to hold partially digested material between small and large intestine. In humans it is no longer used and causes issues (appendix)

108
Q

Do mammals use of bacteria for digestion?

A

Yes. All mammals uses bacteria part of the same phyla to aid in digestion.

109
Q

What does the pancreas do during digestion?

A

Emmits important hormones of insulin and glucagon and produces a enzyme to help breakdown protein

110
Q

What do the liver and gallbladder do in digestion?

A

Liver produces bile to breakdown fats and gallbladder stores the bile

111
Q

How does diet correlate to GI size?

A

Herbivores and omnivores have longer GI tract that carnivores

112
Q

Where does fermentation take place?

A

Hindgut

113
Q

Do camels have 4 chambered ruminant stomachs?

A

No they only have 3

114
Q

Why are primates hard to define?

A

Because they are generalists meaning they lack specialized features

115
Q

What are the 4 broad characteristics used to define a primate?

A

1) locomotion
2) Sensory adaptation
3) Dietary adaptations
4) Behvaiour

116
Q

Locomotion in primates

A

Opposable thumbs and grasping hand. Flat nails and tactile pads. Usually quadrupeds. Flexible shoulder joint and clavicle.

117
Q

Sensory adaptations in primates

A

Boney orbit, forward-facing eyes, colour visions, and decreased reliance on smell

118
Q

Dietary adaptations in primates

A

Diphyodont and heterodont (reflect omnivorous lifestyle). Fewer teeth than most mammals (32 adults teeth)

119
Q

Behaviour in primates

A

Larger brain (espically neocortex used for rational thinking). Extended lifespan and spend time with offspring (more change for learning)

120
Q

What are 5 adaptations of apes to humans ?

A

Cranial morphology, pigmentation, bipedalism, reduction in dentition, and prognathism/orthognathism

121
Q

What are some things studied in anthropology?

A

Looking at differences of living vs dead humans including:
Cranial morphology, osteology, and anthropemtry

122
Q

Did cephalization or bipedalism come first?

A

Bipedalism

123
Q

What is orthograde posture?

A

upright erect posture while sitting or grooming

124
Q

What are unipeds?

A

one foot on the ground while one foot is in motion

125
Q

What is the foramen magnum and how has it contributed to bipedalism?

A

Connects CNS. Connects neck. Shifted from the back of the skill to more under the skull over time for weight distribution for bipedalism

126
Q

What are some key adaptations for bipedalism?

A

Foramen magnum position, S shaped spine (vs C shaped), shape of hip bones (illium and pelvis), body size, acetabulum size, and increased cortical bone in femur

127
Q

How has muscle function changed to suit bipedalism?

A

Muscle once used to control a tail are now the gluteus Maximus, minimus, and medius to adjust centre of gravity over the legs

128
Q

What are valgus knees?

A

Knees closer together than where femur connects to hip

129
Q

What in the foot helps balance?

A

The arch of the foot

130
Q

What is the anterior illiac spine?

A

Helps balance head

131
Q

What are the benefits to bipedalism?

A

Surveillance, carry objects, thermoregulation, and energy efficient

132
Q

What are so cons of bipedalism?

A

Cardiovascular problems, musculoskeletal problems, and difficult child birth

133
Q

How did diet shift in human evolution?

A

More meat, fat, and carbs to feed expensive brain

134
Q

What are the characteristics of homo sapiens?

A

 Obligate bipedalism
 Omnivorous
 Global distribution
 Longer gestation period & infant dependency
 Later age of sexual maturation
 Longer life span
 Longer post reproductive life phase in females
 Larger more complex brain
 Spoken language
 Elaborate material culture (tools)

135
Q

What are the three types of modulated growth?

A

Slow (0-2), childhood growth (2-puberty) and adolescent growth (12-18)

Vertebrate Anatomy (6 decks)

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