Final Exam Flashcards
Harry Truman
After FDR died, Vice President Harry S. Truman took over as President.
Situation in Germany After WWII
After the war, Germany was divided into 4 zones. The Soviets controlled the eastern part of the country. The U.S., Britain, and France held zones in the western part. The German capital of Berlin was in the eastern part in the Soviet zone, but it was also divided up into 4 parts. Truman argued that Germany should be united. But, Stalin feared that a strong Germany would once again pose a threat to the Soviet Union. He wanted to keep Soviet influence in a divided Germany.
United Nations (UN)
After the Yalta conference, the United Nations was created. On JUune 26, 1945, 50 nations met in San Francisco, CA, in the first meeting of the United Nations. They all hoped the UN could settle disputes between countries and prevent wars.
Atomic Energy Act (1946)
Signed into law in 1946, this act allowed the federal government only to produce and maintain fissionable materials (nuclear materials). It created the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to encourage private and government research into atomic energy.
80th Congress and Opposition to Truman’s “Fair Deal”
In September 1945, President Truman presented a plan of domestic reforms, aimed at solving some of the postwar problems in America. He wanted to increase government spending to create jobs, build housing, and create a health insurance system. He later called this the program the “Fair Deal.” However, the plan did not pass in Congress. Many Americans blamed Truman and the Democrats for the nation’s problems. The Republicans took advantage of this feeling in the congressional elections of 1946, and they won control of both houses of Congress.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
The Western democracy countries agreed that military cooperation was the best way to contain the Soviets. In 1949, the U.S. Canada, and 10 Western European nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Members agreed to help any member that was attacked. 6 years later, West Germany was allowed to form an army and join NATO. In 1955, the Soviets responded by setting up the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of the Communist governments of Eastern Europe.
RFK’s Speech at Indianapolis and Assassination
Democratic antiwar candidate Robert F. Kennedy entered the race for President. In June 1968, he and McCarthy faced each other in the primary election in California and Kennedy won. Moments after his victory speech, an assassin shot and killed him.
Election of 1948
Harry S. Truman ran for President for the Democrats, and was opposed by Republican New York Governor Thomas Dewey. Truman had become unpopular with many voters due to economic problems in the country. It looked like Dewey would be unbeatable. However, Truman ran a determined and energetic campaign. On Election Day, the Chicago Daily Tribune was so sure that Dewey would win, they printed a paper with the headline “Dewey Defeats Truman.” Yet, when the final votes were counted, Truman beat Dewey by more than 2 million votes, and Democrats also won control of both houses of Congress.
Truman Doctrine
With the Truman Doctrine, President Truman established that the U.S. would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. It effectively reoriented U.S. foreign policy away from its usual stance of withdrawal from regional conflicts not directly involving the U.S., to one of possible intervention in far away conflicts.
Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, channeled over $13 billion to finance the economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951. The Marshall Plan successfully sparked economic recovery, meeting its objective of “restoring the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole.” The plan is named for Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who announced it in a commencement speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947.
2nd Red Scare and Joseph McCarthy
The Cold War increased Americans’ fears of Communist subversion, or secret attempts to overthrow the government from within. Many Americans worried that Communists (“Reds”) were sneaking into the government. Stories of Communists spying on the U.S. gripped the country. In 1950, Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin led the hunt for Communists. He said a Communist network existed in the U.S. government. He called government employees to defend themselves against his charges. Many of his charges were based on little evidence. The word “McCarthyism” came to describe a reckless use of unproven charges. Millions of Americans believed McCarthy, but later came to view him as a bully with little basis for his accusations. Congress also turned against him, and the Senate voted to censure him in December 1954, or formally criticize him for conduct unbecoming a senator.
Korean War
Domino theory - a Cold War policy that suggested a communist government in one nation would quickly lead to communist takeovers in neighboring countries, each falling like dominoes. The U.S. feared that if one country turned communist, then the surrounding countries were also in danger of turning communist.
Combat - Korea was divided in half along the 38th parallel after WWII. The North was communist, and the South was controlled by a U.S.-backed government.
Conflict with Truman and MacArthur - North Korea’s invasion alarmed Truman. He believed that the Soviets supported their attack. Truman quickly ordered American forces into action, and asked the U.N. to also take action. The U.N. called on North Korea to remove its forces from South Korea. When they refused, the U.N. agreed to send in troops. Most of the U.N. forces were commanded by WWII hero Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur had great success initially pushing the North back. Then, he pressed Truman to order an invasion of the North. He assured Truman that neither China nor the Soviets would enter the war. As MacArthur’s troops pushed the North back towards the Chinese border, Chinese Communists led by President Mao Zedong saw this as a threat and sent in a force of thousands of troops into Korea. They drove MacArthur back into the South. A stalemate ensued, and then MacArthur tried to convince Truman to use atomic bombs, but Truman feared that would lead to a larger war. MacArthur then criticized Truman, which led to Truman firing MacArthur. Talks to end the war started in 1951, but negotiations dragged on and a cease-fire agreement wasn’t reached until 1953 under Dwight D. Eisenhauer.
1952 Election & Eisenhower Campaign
Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Democrat Illinois Governor Adlai E. Stevenson. Eisenhower had been a WWII hero who led the Allied forces in Europe and the successful invasion of Normandy on D-Day. HIs campaign slogan was “we like Ike.”
Eisenhower & the CIA
Eisenhower started using the CIA to do secret actions around the world as a way to combat the Soviets and Communists. In his first year as President, he authorized the CIA to deal with a problem in Iran that had started under Truman. The CIA successfully overthrew Iran’s Prime Minister and restored their shah’s power, which kept the Communists from having power in Iran.
Interstate Highway Act
The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, also known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, was enacted on June 29, 1956, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law. With an original authorization of $25 billion for the construction of 41,000 miles (66,000 km) of the Interstate Highway System over a 10-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history through that time.
The addition of the term “defense” in the act’s title was for two reasons: First, some of the original cost was diverted from defense funds. Secondly, most U.S. Air Force bases have a direct link to the system. One of the stated purposes was to provide access in order to defend the United States during a conventional or nuclear war with the Soviet Union and its communist allies.
Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)
In previous Supreme Court rulings (Plessy vs. Ferguson), they had upheld segregation (separate but equal). In reality, the separate facilities were not equal at all. Thurgood Marshall was the chief lawyer of the NAACP, and he decided to challenge the separate but equal idea in schools. To do so, he used the case of 7 7 year-old Linda Brown in Topeka, Kansas. The African-American girl was not allowed to attend an all-white school that was just a few blocks from her house. Instead, she had to go to an all-African-American school across town. Her family had asked a court to let her go to the nearby school and lost. Marshall took their case all the way to the Supreme Court. In the case of Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, Marshall argued that under segregation, schools provided for African-American students were not and could not be equal. On May 17, 1954, the Court gave a unanimous 9-0 ruling that stated separating schoolchildren by race went against the Constitution. The ruling reversed the previous ruling in Plessy vs. Ferguson. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote “In the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are unequal.” The ruling only applied to public schools, but the impact was far deeper. It helped many people see that it was time to oppose other forms of discrimination.
Rosa Parks & Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks was an African American who lived and worked in Montgomery, Alabama. She also served as secretary of the local chapter of the NAACP. On December 1, 1955, she boarded a city bus and found a seat in the “whites only” seating area. The bus driver ordered Parks to move, but she refused. AT the next stop, police arrested her and fined her $10. The arrest led African Americans in the city to boycott the city buses. They had strength in numbers, as about 75% of bus riders in Montgomery were African American. The boycott lasted more than a year. Finally, the Supreme Court ruled that the bus segregation law was unconstitutional. In December 1956, the boycott ended.
Martin Luther King, Jr. & Civil Disobedience
During the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, a young minister named Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., arose to speak out. Not yet widely known, Dr. King was a powerful speaker , and he inspired the crowd. The victory in Montgomery helped make Dr. King a leader in the civil rights movement. Dr. King encouraged his followers to disobey unjust laws without using violence, which is called civil disobedience. He was certain that using such a method of protest would one day lead the government to end segregation.
MLK’s I Have a Dream Speech
Dr. King delivered the famous I Have a Dream speech as he stood on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial at the March on Washington. He shared his vision of a changed country in the speech.
Malcolm X & Black Power
Malcolm X emerged as an important voice for African Americans at the height of the Civil Rights movement. He was a leader in the Nation of Islam - also known as the Black Muslims. He criticized the civil rights goal of integration and said the best way for African Americans to achieve racial justice was to live apart from whites.
Stokely Carmichael became the leader of the SNCC led the call for Black Power. This philosophy of racial pride encouraged African Americans to create their own culture. He and others called for complete change of society through revolution. The Black Panther Party formed in Oakland, California. The Panthers represented a growing frustration among urban African Americans. They were angry about poverty and a lack of jobs. They demanded reforms and armed themselves. They were involved in several clashes with the police.
Election of 1960
Democrat John F. Kennedy ran against Republican Vice President Richard M. Nixon. This was the first televised presidential debate. Polls showed Nixon leading for much of the campaign, but Kennedy won a close election.
JFK’s Background
JFK was from a wealthy and power family. He also became the nation’s first Roman Catholic President. He was a hero in WWII, serving in the Navy. When the Japanese sank the patrol boat he commanded, Kennedy saved the life of an injured crew member by swimming to shore with him on his back. HIs political career began in 1946 when he won a seat in Congress from Massachusetts. 6 years later, he was elected to the U.S. Senate.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
Kennedy faced a serious challenge in Cuba. Cuban rebel leader Fidel Castro seized power and set up a communist dictatorship, and became an ally to the Soviet Union. Cuba is only 90 miles from the U.S. The CIA made a plan to overthrow Castro under Eisenhower. They tried to have Cuban exiles land in Cuba and then start a rebellion against Castro. When the invasion started, it did not go well, and Cuban forces crushed the invasion after Kennedy refused to send air support. Kennedy then no longer trusted the CIA and military advice. Latin American nations also lost trust in Kennedy. The Soviets also though Kennedy was not a strong leader and could be bullied.
Cuban Missile Crisis
The most dangerous Cold War crisis happened in 1967. The U.S. found out that the Soviets were building nuclear missile launch sites in Cuba. Missiles could reach the U.S. in minutes from there. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba until the Soviets removed their missiles. Kennedy threatened to destroy any Soviet ship that tried to break through the blockade. Kennedy warned that any attack from Cuba against a western nation would result in a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. After 5 days, the Soviet ships turned back. After the crisis, Kennedy and Khrushchev worked to build better relations.
Civil Rights - March on Washington (1963)
To rally support for Kennedy’s civil rights bill, Dr. King and the SCLC called for a march on Washington, D.C. The date was set for August 28, 1963. More than 200,000 people of all colors and from all over the country arrived to take part.
Counterculture Movement - Woodstock and Hippies
Some opposition to the Vietnam war came from the counterculture, a movement that rejected traditional American values. Popular music played a role in communicating counterculture ideas. Some parents were troubled by the music and other symbols of counterculture such as torn blue jeans and long hair for males. Woodstock was a large outdoor concert in 1969 that symbolized the anti-war counterculture movement in America. Members of the counterculture movement were called hippies.
1964 Civil Rights Act
President Kennedy did not live to see passage of his civil rights bill, as he was assassinated in November 1963. After taking office, President Lyndon B. Johnson took up the challenge. He pushed Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The law outlawed discrimination in hiring. It ended segregation in stores, restaurants, theaters, hotels, and public places. It banned discrimination by race, gender, religion, and national origin.
Kennedy Assassination
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy visited Dallas with his wife, Jacqueline. As the president’s car drove through the city, an assassin struck. Kennedy was shot and killed. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and charged with the killing. But, he was murdered as he was being moved from one jail to another. Some Americans believe that the Kennedy assassination was a conspiracy and was an act planned by more than just one person. A commission headed by Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren later investigated the assassination and stated that Oswald had acted alone. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took over as President.
Election of 1964
It was held on Tuesday, November 3, 1964. Incumbent Democratic United States President Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Barry Goldwater, the Republican nominee, in a landslide. With 61.1% of the popular vote, Johnson won the largest share of the popular vote of any candidate since the largely uncontested 1820 election.
LBJ’s Background
Born in rural Texas, grew up in a 3 room house in poverty. Worked his way through college and got into politics.
LBJ’s Great Society
On July 2, 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The law outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, color, national origin, or sex. He also signed the Economic Opportunity Act as the foundation of the War on Poverty. It established the Office of Economic Opportunity to direct and coordinate educational, employment, and training programs. To improve education, he signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which committed the federal government to help, for the first time, local school districts whose students come from low-income families. The Head Start program launched, designed to give underprivileged kids a head start before beginning first grade. Johnson signed an amendment to the Social Security Act creating Medicaid and Medicare, which were health insurance programs for the elderly and low-income individuals and families. He signed the Air Quality Act, which granted the government increased authority to control air pollution. For consumer protection, Johnson signed a number of laws including truth-in-packaging requirements. It created the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the Child Safety Act. Johnson signed the Immigration Act, which abolished the national origin formula that had been in place that gave favoritism to European people over others trying to come to America.
Vietnam War - Causes
In WWII Japan captured the French colony of Indochina, which included today’s countries of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Vietnam’s leader Ho Chi Minh declared independence when Japan surrendered. The French were not willing to give it up because it was a valuable colony with a lot of resources. Ho Chi Minh and his forces fought a long, bloody war against France until they won in 1954. In 1954, the U.S., France, China, and the Soviet Union met at the Geneva Accords and reached a peace agreement that split Vietnam into two halves. The North would be let by communist nationalists, and the South would be controlled by non-communists supported by the U.S. The U.S. made it clear they would act if the North attacked the South. Ngo Dinh Diem became the leader in the South. He refused to have free elections and cracked down on communists in the South. They responded by forming a group called the Vietcong. In 1959, on orders from Ho Chi Minh, the Vietcong started a war with the Diem regime in the South. Diem did horrifying things to people of other religions, like Buddhists. In 1963, the U.S. had to withdraw its support of Diem. In November 1963, the South’s army overthrew the government and assassinated Diem.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
After North Vietnamese patrol boats attacked American ships near North Vietnam, Congress gave President Johnson broad power to use American forces.
Combat in the Vietnam War
Fighting was very difficult. On the ground, it was covered in muddy, thick forests, swampy rice paddies, and dense jungle. It was easy for the North to hide from U.S. forces, and they used guerilla tactics.
Credibility Gap and Media/TV Influence
Credibility gap is a term that came into wide use with journalism, political and public discourse in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. At the time, it was most frequently used to describe public skepticism about the Lyndon B. Johnson administration’s statements and policies on the Vietnam War. Major newspapers and magazines openly criticized the conduct of the war. The Johnson administration developed a credibility gap - fewer people trusted what they said about the war.
Ho Chi Minh Trail
A network of paths along which North Vietnam delivered supplies to Communist forces.
Tet Offensive
The North Vietnamese and Vietcong began a series of attacks on January 31, 1968. The attacks began on Tet - the Vietnamese New Year. It marked a turning point in the Vietnam War. The Communists attacked American military bases and South Vietnamese cities. Vietcong troops raided the U.S. embassy in Saigon, the capital. On the battlefield, Tet was a disaster for the Communist forces. After a month of fighting, American and South Vietnamese soldiers had caused heavy enemy losses. However, the Tet Offensive turned many more Americans against the war and against President Johnson. The American people were shocked that an enemy supposedly close to defeat could launch such a massive attack. Most Americans began to believe that the army was losing ground.
Nixon and Vietnamization
President Nixon urged for changes to the U.S.’s Vietnam strategy. He cut back on the number of American troops in Vietnam, and called for the South Vietnamese to take a more active role in fighting. He also made several changes to the unpopular draft system.
U.S. Withdrawal and Vietnam War Results
In January 1973, all sides finally reached a peace agreement. The U.S. agreed to pull its troops out of Vietnam, and the North Vietnamese agreed to return all American prisoners of war. As the Americans left Vietnam, the North did not stop its attacks on the South, and eventually took over the country.
Election of 1968
Republican former Vice President Richard M. Nixon ran against Democrat Vice President Hubert H. Humphrey and third party candidate George C. Wallace. Nixon won the election based on promising a return to law and order and to stand for America’s silent majority. He also offered peace with honor as a strategy to end the Vietnam War. It seemed the majority of Americans wanted the government to restore order.
Assassination of MLK
On April 4, 1968, a sniper in Memphis, Tennessee, shot Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and the leader of the Civil Rights movement was dead.
Nixon’s Foreign Policy - Detente (China, U.S.S.R., SALT)
Nixon wanted to find areas of common interests and cooperation with Cold War opponents. To help shape his foreign policy, he relied on his national security advisor Henry Kissinger. He followed a policy of detente - attempts at relaxing international tensions. As detente replaced confrontation, Nixon hoped the U.S. and Communist states could begin working to settle their disagreements. Nixon made steps to improve relations with China, and the U.S. started trade with China in 1971. After Nixon’s historic China visit, he traveled to Moscow, the Soviet capital hoping to improve relations with them. The U.S. and U.S.S.R. agreed to the Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty (SALT), where both sides agreed to set limits on some of their nuclear missiles.
Moon Landing
On July 20, 1969, TV viewers around the world watched as the spacecraft Eagle landed on the moon. Astronaut Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon. This was the result of JFK’s Apollo 11 mission of wanting the U.S. to get the first man on the moon and returned safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s. Buzz Aldrin is an American former astronaut, engineer and fighter pilot. He made three spacewalks as pilot of the 1966 Gemini 12 mission, and, as Lunar Module Eagle pilot on the 1969 Apollo 11 mission, he and mission commander Neil Armstrong were the first two people to land on the Moon.
Watergate Scandal
As NIxon became worried about his chances of reelecdtion in 1972, his reelection committee named CREEP sent burglars to break into the Democratic Party’s office in the Watergate building in Washington, D.C. They hoped to steal information about the Democrats’ campaign. They also planned to place listening devices on the office telephones. These actions were against the law. A security guard at Watergate and police caught the burglars. Reporters at the Washington Post newspaper Woodward and Bernstein kept digging into the story. They had a secret informant nicknamed Deepthroat who was providing them information. Nixon denied any involvement, but reporters were able to link the burglary to Nixon’s reelection campaign. Then, one of the burglars admitted that White House aides had lied about their involvement. In fact, they had pressured the burglars to plead guilty and remain silent. In May 1973, the Senate began hearings on the Watergate scandal. A special prosecutor asked a court to force Nixon to hand over the white house tapes of his conversations. Nixon refused, and even ordered that the prosecutor be fired. In protest, Nixon’s attorney general and his deputy quit. This event became known as the Saturday Night Massacre. Nixon’s abuse of power had shocked the nation. Nixon v. US was a historic court decision that forced Nixon to turn over the secret tapes. As pressure built and the House was going to vote on impeaching Nixon, one of his tapes reveled he had ordered a cover up of the Watergate break in just days after it happened. After this, Nixon knew he would be impeached and he resigned the presidency. Vice President Gerald R. Ford took over as President. Hoping to heal the wounds of the country over Watergate, Ford issued Nixon a pardon for his crimes he may have committed as President in Watergate. However, the pardon stirred up even more controversy.
Gerald Ford’s Background
Gerald R. Ford was born in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1913. He later moved to Grand Rapids, Michigan. He was a high school football star, and he attended the University of Michigan. Ford served in the Navy on an aircraft carrier in WWII. He served as a long-time Republican Congressman. Ford was later appointed to be Vice President by Richard Nixon. When Nixon resigned, Ford took over as President.
Ford’s Pardon of Nixon
Shortly after taking office as President after Nixon resigned, Ford pardoned Nixon for any crimes he may have committed as President. The pardon meant that Nixon would never have to face criminal charges for his involvement in the Watergate scandal. Ford’s decision generated a lot of controversy as millions of Americans wanted to see the disgraced former President brought to justice. Some critics charged that Ford issued the pardon to Nixon as part of a pre-arranged deal to reach the Oval Office. But, Ford insisted that the nation’s future hinged on ending the scandal of Watergate and beginning the process of healing.
Ford’s Domestic Policy, OPEC & Inflation
Ford faced a troubled economy as President. Inflation and unemployment remained high. Foreign competition led to factory closings and worker layoffs. Oil prices remained high. He called on Americans to save rather than spend money. He urged people to plant gardens to offset rising food prices. To fight inflation, Ford launched voluntary wage and price controls. He also tried to cut government spending to control inflation. When this failed, the President asked Congress to pass a tax cut. This tax cut helped improve the economy, but it reduced government revenue and helped lead to a budget deficit. Ford battled a heavy Democratic Congress and vetoed 66 pieces of legislation that conflicted with his basic philosophy of fiscal conservatism.
Election of 1976
Republican President Gerald R. Ford ran against Democrat Jimmy Carter from Georgia. Carter stressed his integrity, or moral character, and his religious faith. Carter vowed to restore the faith of Americans in the federal government by making it more open and efficient. Carter won in a close election over Ford.
Jimmy Carter’s Background
A former Georgia governor, Carter had never worked in Washington, D.C. He was seen as an “outsider” candidate. This was an appealing quality after the Watergate scandal.
Carter Economy - Stagflation and Gas Problems
Carter tried to boost the economy. He cut taxes and increased spending. Unemployment went down, but inflation went up. Carter then called for spending cuts and a delayed tax cut. Carter’s change of course made him seem weak and uncertain. As an outsider, he also had trouble gaining support in Congress. Carter tried to address the country’s energy problems. High energy costs made inflation worse. Carter presented a National Energy Plan to solve the energy crisis. He also wanted to collect taxes to increase oil production and energy conservation. Congress passed a weakened version of his plan in 1978.
3 Mile Island Incident
In March 1979, a major accident took place at the Three Mile Island nuclear power plant near Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Officials said there was little threat to the public from the event. However, many people feared that this kind of accident could cause widespread harm. It could lead to a release of nuclear energy that might poison people and the land.
Panama Canal Treaties
Carter took action to end Latin American bitterness over the Panama Canal. Over the years, U.S. control of the canal had caused friction between the U.S. and Panama. Carter signed two treaties with Panama in 1977 that turned the Panama Canal over to Panama by the year 2000. They also ensured that the canal would remain a neutral waterway open to all shipping.
Iranian Hostage Crisis
In the 1970s, Iran was a major U.S. ally in the oil-rich Persian Gulf region. Iran’s ruler built a powerful military with U.S. aid. In January 1979, Islamic fundamentalists forced the shaw to flee Iran. The new ruler was hostile to the U.S. In November 1979, Iranian students with government support stormed the U.S. embassy in Tehran. The group held 52 Americans hostage. Diplomatic attempts to negotiate the release of the hostages failed. A daring rescue attempt ended in tragedy with the deaths of 8 American soldiers. The hostage crisis dragged on and became a major issue in the election of 1980.
Nixon’s Domestic Policies
Nixon ended the military draft and moved the U.S. military to an all-volunteer force. He also founded the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). Nixon also appointed 4 Supreme Court Justices. Nixon also kicked off a war on cancer, dedicating $100 million. He signed Title IX, opening the door for women athletes in collegiate sports. Nixon oversaw all the successful moon landings while in office. Nixon was a great proponent of the 26th Amendment. He lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
Soviets Invade Afghanistan
In December 1979, the Soviets invaded Afghanistan, and the U.S. was outraged. The U.S. and other nations refused to participate in the Olympic Games scheduled to take place in Moscow.
Miracle on Ice (1980)
One of the most dramatic upsets in sports history. February 22, 1980, the U.S. men’s olympic hockey team defeated the heavily-favored Soviets in the Winter Olympic games in Lake Placid, New York. The U.S. team was a group of amateurs, while the Soviet team was a “dream team” that had just defeated the U.S. in an exhibition game 10-3. To many Americans, the victory was an ideological victory in the Cold War as meaningful as the Berlin Airlift and the Apollo moon landing. The upset came at a needed time for the U.S., as the Soviets had just invaded Afghanistan, and the Iran Hostage Crisis was ongoing.
Election of 1980
President Carter ran against Republican candidate Ronald Reagan. As the election approached, Carter’s troubles mounted. Many Americans blamed him for a weak economy, which was experiencing both high inflation and high unemployment. They also blamed him for not gaining the release of the American hostages in Iran. Reagan easily won the election over Carter, and Republicans also gained control of the Senate for the first time since 1954. The Iran hostages finally were freed after Reagan took office after being in captivity for 444 days.
Ronald Reagan’s Background
Reagan was a former actor in Hollywood, and had previously been a Democrat before switching to the Republican party. He served as California’s governor before running for President. He lost a close election vs. Carter in the election of 1976, then won a huge victory of Carter in the election of 1980.
Reagan and Labor (PATCO)
A few months after Reagan took office, the nation’s air traffic controllers went on strike. The strike was against the law, and Reagan ordered the controllers to go back to work. When they refused, Reagan acted quickly and fired the controllers. Then, he ordered the military to oversee air traffic while new controllers were trained to do the work. Reagan’s firm, swift action sent a message that he would use his power to carry out the policies in which he believed. He took a strong stance on following the law and hard work.
Reagan’s Beliefs - Conservatism
Reagan believed in lower taxes, less government spending, strong defense, and national pride. Conservatism favors tradition and moderation. Conservatives prefer a smaller government that has a limited reach into business and people’s lives. Reagan called for a return to what he called “traditional American values.” These included ideas such as family life, hard work, respect for law, and patriotism. Reagan supporters shared the belief that the government made too many rules. They also thought that government collected too much in taxes and spent too much on social programs.
Supply Side Economics
Supply Side Economics is also known as “Reaganomics” or “Trickle-down Economics.” These policies seek to reduce taxes and government intervention in the economy. Reagan believed that if people and businesses paid less money in taxes to the government, then they would have more money to spend. Businesses would invest the extra money helping the economy grow, which would create more jobs helping everyone. Reagan’s critics argued that this helped corporations and wealthy Americans, but would do little to help average or poor Americans.
Reagan Assassination Attempt & the Reagan Economy
After a speech at a Washington, D.C., hotel, John Hinckley Jr., a loner afflicted with mental problems, fires several shots at President Reagan. One of the bullets hit Reagan in the chest, and missed his heart by less than an inch. Reagan was rushed to the hospital, and his life was saved. Early in Reagan’s first term in 1981, unemployment rose to 11 percent. He preached that the country needed to stay the course with his economic policies. In 1983, America’s economy experienced what is now called the “Reagan Boom.” Reagan’s policies led to an almost unprecedented economic boom that lasted through his 2nd term when he left the White House in 1989.
Election of 1984
Reagan ran for a 2nd term against Democrat candidate Walter Mondale. Reagan won in a landslide, winning 49 out of 50 states.
Soviet Union Changes & Mikhail Gorbachev - Glasnost & Perestroika
Reagan’s 2nd term saw better relations with the Soviet Union and their leader Mikhail Gorbachev. Gorbachev was open to “glasnost,” which meant the allowance of some new ideas to come into Soviet society. Gorbachev also introduced “perestroika,” which reduced the Soviet government’s control of their economy. Under Gorbachev, the Soviets also agreed to the INF treaty, which was a big step towards reducing the threat of nuclear war.
Reagan Foreign Policy - Strategic Defense Initiative (“Star Wars”)
Reagan described the Soviet Union in 1983 as an “evil empire.” He unveiled his plan for a missile defense system called the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). The SDI project would create a shield in space to protect the U.S. from incoming missiles. This program would force the Soviets to compete in a range of technologies that was beyond its economic capability. Reagan believed in the concept of ensuring peace through projecting strength. Reagan believe that the Soviets had taken advantage of the previous detente approach. He was convinced that the Soviets were weaker economically than most people believed. He told reporters that it would be of great benefit to the U.S. if we started a military buildup because the Soviets would be unable to compete and would come to the bargaining table.
Challenger Space Shuttle Disaster
On January 28, 1986, the American space shuttle Challenger exploded 73 seconds after takeoff, killing all 7 people onboard. This included American schoolteacher Christa McAuliffe from New Hampshire, who had been selected to join the mission and teach lessons from space to schoolchildren around the country. The tragedy and the aftermath received extensive media coverage and prompted NASA to temporarily suspend all space shuttle missions. Reagan responded by giving an eloquent speech to the nation from the oval office that has been praised by historians.
Reagan’s Speech at the Berlin Wall (1987)
Reagan delivered a famous speech next the Berlin Wall in 1987. In it, he called for Gorbachev to “tear down this wall,” as it symbolized the Soviet’s communist oppression of freedom throughout the world. Reagan’s speech was a turning point in the Cold War. Reagan’s speech spoke of freedom and capitalism thriving throughout the world, but blamed the Soviets and communism for keeping freedom from happening in Berlin and other parts of the world.
Iran-Contra Affair
“Iran-Contra” was the biggest scandal under Reagan, and actually involved two separate initiatives. The first was the U.S. sale of a small amount of military equipment to Iran in contradiction to Reagan’s public policy of remaining neutral in the Iran-Iraq war. The second part of the scandal involved a small group of U.S. National Security Council staff members, who funneled proceeds from the sale of those weapons to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua, who were opposing the current government there. Reagan admitted that he had authorized the sale of the arms to Iran, but he never had any knowledge of the transfer of money to the Contra rebels in Nicaragua.
Reagan Legacy
When he left office in 1989, Ronald Reagan had an approval rating of 68%, which was the highest of any president since FDR. Reagan’s policies helped start an unprecedented economic boom that lasted from 1983 through 1989. He also is credited for helping the U.S. achieve a victory over the Soviet Union in the Cold War. He also oversaw a large military buildup (arms race), and cut back on many other government programs. He also kicked off the “War on Drugs,” and appointed the first female Supreme Court Justice Sandra Day O’Connor.
Election of 1988
After 2 terms as Vice President under Reagan, George H. W. Bush ran as the Republican candidate against Democrat Michael Dukakis. Bush won easily with 426 electoral votes to only 111 for Dukakis.
George H. W. Bush’s Background
Bush served two terms for Texas in the House of Representatives in the 1960s. President Nixon later appointed him the U.S. ambassador to the United Nations. Later, he became chairman of the Republican Party. In that role, he requested Nixon to resign the Presidency during the Watergate scandal. In 1974, President Ford appointed him as head of the U.S. Liaison Office to China. He then became Director of the CIA in 1976. Bush served two terms as Vice President under Reagan before running as the main Republican candidate for President in the election of 1988.
Persian Gulf War
After Iraqi leader Saddam Hussein invaded and occupation of Kuwait in August 1990 and threatened to invade Saudi Arabia, Bush organized a military coalition of more than 30 countries who began a U.S.-led air assault against Iraq in January 1991. This is known as the Persian Gulf War. After 5 weeks of air offensive and 100 hours of a ground offensive, Operation Desert Storm ended in late February with Iraq’s defeat and Kuwait’s liberation. Saddam Hussein was allowed to remain in power in Iraq, though he was forced to retreat from Kuwait. Initially viewed as a success, Bush and U.S. allies have been criticized for their decision to keep Saddam Hussein in power in Iraq. Hussein would later go on to instigate another war - the Iraqi war - under future President George W. Bush.
George H. W. Bush’s Domestic Policies & Social Issues
Bush faced challenges at home. He inherited a growing federal debt and a slowing economy. The economy stopped growing in 1990 and entered a recession. One cause was the end of the Cold War and the resulting cuts to defense industry jobs. Another cause was the government borrowing in the 1980s making the federal debt reach new highs, and the federal debt made the recession worse. Bush also faced a crisis in the Savings & Loan associations. These were like banks that loaned money out to people. Many S&Ls went out of business after giving out risky loans and the government had to cover peoples’ losses since they were insured by the government. This cost the government about $160 billion. Bus did sign important pieces of legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act, and the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990. He also launched the War on Illegal Drugs.
Election of 1992
While Bush had earlier promised “no new taxes,” he later had to raise tax revenues due to the rising budget deficit, which upset many Americans. He lost the election of 1992 to Democrat Arkansas Governor Bill Clinton. Third-party candidate Ross Perot also took 19% of the vote, which mostly hurt Bush compared to Clinton. Clinton won the election with 370 electoral votes and 43% of the vote.
Clinton’s Background
Clinton had been serving as Governor of Arkansas prior to winning the election of 1992. He was an Arkansas native, and served as Governor two different times before winning the Democratic nomination for the election of 1992.
Clinton & Healthcare
Clinton attempted to enact universal health insurance for all Americans, and appointed First Lady Hillary Clinton to head the committee charged with creating the plan. However, the committee’s plan was opposed by conservatives and the health care industry, among others, and Congress ultimately failed to act on it.
Clinton Social Events (Branch Davidians)
The Waco siege, also known as the Waco massacre, was the law enforcement siege of the compound that belonged to the religious sect Branch Davidians. It was carried out by the U.S. federal government, Texas state law enforcement, and the U.S. military, between February 28 and April 19, 1993. The Branch Davidians were led by David Koresh and were headquartered at Mount Carmel Center ranch in the community of Axtell, Texas, 13 miles (21 kilometers) northeast of Waco. Suspecting the group of stockpiling illegal weapons, the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) obtained a search warrant for the compound and arrest warrants for Koresh, as well as a select few of the group’s members.
The incident began when the ATF attempted to serve a search and arrest warrant on the ranch. An intense gunfight erupted, resulting in the deaths of four government agents and six Branch Davidians. Upon the ATF’s entering of the property and failure to execute the search warrant, a siege lasting 51 days was initiated by the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). Eventually, the FBI launched an assault and initiated a tear gas attack in an attempt to force the Branch Davidians out of the ranch. Shortly thereafter, the Mount Carmel Center became engulfed in flames. The fire resulted in the deaths of 76 Branch Davidians, including 25 children, two pregnant women, and David Koresh.
The events of the siege and attack are disputed by various sources. A particular controversy ensued over the origin of the fire; an internal Justice Department investigation concluded in 2000 that incendiary tear gas canisters were used by the FBI, but maintained that sect members had started the fire. This came after a panel of arson investigators concluded that the Davidians were responsible for igniting it simultaneously in at least three different areas of the compound. The events near Waco, along with the law enforcement siege at Ruby Ridge less than 12 months earlier, have been cited by commentators as catalysts for the Oklahoma City bombing by Timothy McVeigh and Terry Nichols, as well as the modern day American militia movement and a rise in opposition to firearm regulation.
Clinton - Republican Revolution (Newt Gingrich)
The Republican Revolution, Revolution of ‘94, or Gingrich Revolution, refers to the Republican Party (GOP) success in the 1994 U.S. mid-term elections, which resulted in a net gain of 54 seats in the House of Representatives, and a pick-up of eight seats in the Senate. On November 9, 1994, the day after the election, Senator Richard Shelby of Alabama, a conservative Democrat, changed parties, becoming a Republican; on March 3, 1995, Colorado Senator Ben Nighthorse Campbell switched to the Republican side as well, increasing the GOP Senate majority.
Rather than campaigning independently in each district, Republican candidates chose to rally behind a single national program and message fronted by Georgia congressman and House Republican whip Newt Gingrich. They alleged that President Bill Clinton was not the “New Democrat” he claimed to be during his 1992 campaign, but was a “tax and spend” liberal. The Republicans offered an alternative to Clinton’s policies in the form of the Contract with America.
The gains in seats in the mid-term election resulted in the Republicans gaining control of both the House and the Senate in January 1995. Republicans had not held the majority in the House for 40 years, since the 83rd Congress (elected in 1952). From 1933 to 1995, Republicans had controlled both House and Senate for only four years.
Clinton - Government Shutdowns
The United States federal government shutdowns of 1995 and 1995–96 were the result of conflicts between Democratic President Bill Clinton and the Republican Congress over funding for education, the environment, and public health in the 1996 federal budget. The shutdowns lasted from November 14 through November 19, 1995, and from December 16, 1995, to January 6, 1996, for 5 and 21 days, respectively.
The first shutdown occurred after Clinton vetoed the spending bill the Republican-controlled Congress sent him, as Clinton opposed the budget cuts favored by Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich and other Republicans. The first budget shutdown ended after Congress passed a temporary budget bill, but the government shut down again after Republicans and Democrats were unable to agree on a long-term budget bill. The second shutdown ended with congressional Republicans accepting Clinton’s budget proposal. The first of the two shutdowns caused the furlough of about 800,000 workers, while the second caused about 284,000 workers to be furloughed.
Monica Lewinsky & Clinton Impeachment
Clinton’s second term was marred by scandal. On December 19, 1998, the U.S. House of Representatives impeached him for perjury and obstruction of justice in connection with an inappropriate relationship he had in the White House with intern Monica Lewinsky. Clinton had lied to Congress and the American people about his relationship with Lewinsky, which angered Congressional Republicans. ON February 12, 1999, the U.S. Senate acquitted the President of the charges and he remained in office. Clinton was the second American president to be impeached.
Clinton & the Economy
During Clinton’s second term the U.S. economy was healthy, unemployment was low and the nation experienced a major technology boom and the rise of the internet. In 1998, the U.S. achieved its first federal budget surplus in three decades (the final two years of Clinton’s presidency also resulted in budget surpluses.)
Election of 2000
American presidential election held on Nov. 7, 2000, in which Republican George W. Bush narrowly lost the popular vote to incumbent Vice President Democrat Al Gore but defeated Gore in the electoral college.
September 11th Terrorist Attacks
On September 11, 2001, Islamic terrorist hijackers took control of 4 domestic airline flights. They intentionally crashed 2 of the aircraft into each of the twin towers of the World Trade Center in New York City. The collisions caused massive explosions that showered burning debris over surrounding buildings and onto the streets below. Eventually, each of the two towers collapsed. A 3rd hijacked flight was intentionally crashed into the Pentagon in Washington, D.C., and a 4th aircraft was also hijacked. Before terrorists could crash that flight into a target, passengers onboard the aircraft fought back against the terrorists. That flight crashed into the ground in a field in Pennsylvania. The terrorists were Islamic terrorists from Saudi Arabia and several other Arab nations who were financed by the al Qaeda terrorist organization led by Osama Bin Laden. A total of 2,996 people were killed in the September 11th attacks.
Al Qaeda & War on Terror
Al Qaeda was an Islamic terrorist organization led by Osama Bin Laden. They were allegedly acting in retaliation for America’s support of Israel, its involvement in the Persian Gulf War, and its continued military presence in the Middle East. President George W. Bush delivered his famous Axis of Evil speech during his State of the Union address on January 29, 2002. In it, he declared that countries supporting terrorists, and their terrorists allies, constitute an axis of evil, arming to threaten the peace of the world. Bush said that the U.S. and its allies would not permit the world’s most dangerous regimes to threaten us with the world’s most destructive weapons, and that our war on terror had begun.
Iraq War - Saddam Hussein & WMD
The Iraq War was an armed conflict in Iraq from 2003 to 2011 that began with the invasion of Iraq by the United States–led coalition which overthrew the Iraqi government of Saddam Hussein. The invasion occurred as part of the George W. Bush administration’s War on Terror following the September 11 attacks. In October 2002, Congress granted President Bush the power to decide whether to launch any military attack in Iraq. The Iraq War began on March 20, 2003, when the US, joined by the UK, Australia, and Poland, launched a “shock and awe” bombing campaign. Iraqi forces were quickly overwhelmed as coalition forces swept through the country. The invasion led to the collapse of the Iraqi government; Saddam Hussein was captured during Operation Red Dawn in December of that same year and executed three years later. The United States based its rationale for the invasion on claims that Iraq had a weapons of mass destruction (WMD) program and posed a threat to the United States and its allies. Additionally, some US officials falsely accused Saddam of harboring and supporting al-Qaeda. In 2004, the 9/11 Commission concluded there was no evidence of any relationship between Saddam’s regime and al-Qaeda. No stockpiles of WMDs or active WMD program were ever found in Iraq. Bush administration officials made numerous claims about a purported Saddam–al-Qaeda relationship and WMDs that were based on sketchy evidence rejected by intelligence officials. The rationale for war faced heavy criticism both domestically and internationally.
Hurricane Katrina
Hurricane Katrina was a large and destructive Category 5 Atlantic hurricane that caused over 1,800 fatalities and $125 billion in damage in late August 2005, especially in the city of New Orleans and the surrounding areas. It was at the time the costliest tropical cyclone on record. Flooding, caused largely as a result of fatal engineering flaws in the flood protection system (levees) around the city of New Orleans, precipitated most of the loss of lives. Eventually, 80% of the city, as well as large tracts of neighboring parishes, were inundated for weeks. The flooding also destroyed most of New Orleans’s transportation and communication facilities, leaving tens of thousands of people who had not evacuated the city prior to landfall stranded with little access to food, shelter, or other basic necessities. The scale of the disaster in New Orleans provoked massive national and international response efforts; federal, local, and private rescue operations evacuated displaced persons out of the city over the following weeks. Multiple investigations in the aftermath of the storm concluded that the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, which had designed and built the region’s levees decades earlier, was responsible for the failure of the flood-control systems. The emergency response from federal, state, and local governments was widely criticized, resulting in the resignations of Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) director Michael D. Brown and New Orleans Police Department (NOPD) Superintendent Eddie Compass. Many other government officials were criticized for their responses, especially New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin, Louisiana Governor Kathleen Blanco, and President George W. Bush.
2008 Financial Collapse & the Great Recession
The 2008 financial collapse and the “Great Recession” started with issues in the housing market. Between 2001 and 2007, mortgage debt in the U.S. rose nearly as much as it had in the entire rest of the nation’s history. At about the same time, home prices doubled. Mortgage salesmen around the country got Americans to borrow more and more money for houses. But, many salesmen or mortgage companies didn’t ask borrowers for proof of income, job, or assets to justify their loans. They did this because they had no intention of keeping the loans themselves, as they were sold onward to other people or mortgage companies. Eventually, the bubble burst and companies started to fail as a result of the failed mortgage loans. The government had to step in and bail-out some of America’s largest financial institutions.
Bush Legacy
The Bush presidency transformed American politics, its economy, and its place in the world, but not in ways that could have been predicted when the governor of Texas declared his candidacy for America’s highest office. As President, Bush became a lightning rod for controversy. His controversial election and policies, especially the war in Iraq, deeply divided the American people. Arguably his greatest moment as President was his initial, heartfelt response to the tragedy of the 9/11 attacks. Soon, however, his administration was overshadowed by the wars in Afghanistan and Iraq. President Bush’s place in U.S. history will be debated and reconsidered for many years to come.
