Final Exam Flashcards
Harry Truman
After FDR died, Vice President Harry S. Truman took over as President.
Situation in Germany After WWII
After the war, Germany was divided into 4 zones. The Soviets controlled the eastern part of the country. The U.S., Britain, and France held zones in the western part. The German capital of Berlin was in the eastern part in the Soviet zone, but it was also divided up into 4 parts. Truman argued that Germany should be united. But, Stalin feared that a strong Germany would once again pose a threat to the Soviet Union. He wanted to keep Soviet influence in a divided Germany.
United Nations (UN)
After the Yalta conference, the United Nations was created. On JUune 26, 1945, 50 nations met in San Francisco, CA, in the first meeting of the United Nations. They all hoped the UN could settle disputes between countries and prevent wars.
Atomic Energy Act (1946)
Signed into law in 1946, this act allowed the federal government only to produce and maintain fissionable materials (nuclear materials). It created the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) to encourage private and government research into atomic energy.
80th Congress and Opposition to Truman’s “Fair Deal”
In September 1945, President Truman presented a plan of domestic reforms, aimed at solving some of the postwar problems in America. He wanted to increase government spending to create jobs, build housing, and create a health insurance system. He later called this the program the “Fair Deal.” However, the plan did not pass in Congress. Many Americans blamed Truman and the Democrats for the nation’s problems. The Republicans took advantage of this feeling in the congressional elections of 1946, and they won control of both houses of Congress.
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
The Western democracy countries agreed that military cooperation was the best way to contain the Soviets. In 1949, the U.S. Canada, and 10 Western European nations formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Members agreed to help any member that was attacked. 6 years later, West Germany was allowed to form an army and join NATO. In 1955, the Soviets responded by setting up the Warsaw Pact, a military alliance of the Communist governments of Eastern Europe.
RFK’s Speech at Indianapolis and Assassination
Democratic antiwar candidate Robert F. Kennedy entered the race for President. In June 1968, he and McCarthy faced each other in the primary election in California and Kennedy won. Moments after his victory speech, an assassin shot and killed him.
Election of 1948
Harry S. Truman ran for President for the Democrats, and was opposed by Republican New York Governor Thomas Dewey. Truman had become unpopular with many voters due to economic problems in the country. It looked like Dewey would be unbeatable. However, Truman ran a determined and energetic campaign. On Election Day, the Chicago Daily Tribune was so sure that Dewey would win, they printed a paper with the headline “Dewey Defeats Truman.” Yet, when the final votes were counted, Truman beat Dewey by more than 2 million votes, and Democrats also won control of both houses of Congress.
Truman Doctrine
With the Truman Doctrine, President Truman established that the U.S. would provide political, military, and economic assistance to all democratic nations under threat from external or internal authoritarian forces. It effectively reoriented U.S. foreign policy away from its usual stance of withdrawal from regional conflicts not directly involving the U.S., to one of possible intervention in far away conflicts.
Marshall Plan
The Marshall Plan, also known as the European Recovery Program, channeled over $13 billion to finance the economic recovery of Europe between 1948 and 1951. The Marshall Plan successfully sparked economic recovery, meeting its objective of “restoring the confidence of the European people in the economic future of their own countries and of Europe as a whole.” The plan is named for Secretary of State George C. Marshall, who announced it in a commencement speech at Harvard University on June 5, 1947.
2nd Red Scare and Joseph McCarthy
The Cold War increased Americans’ fears of Communist subversion, or secret attempts to overthrow the government from within. Many Americans worried that Communists (“Reds”) were sneaking into the government. Stories of Communists spying on the U.S. gripped the country. In 1950, Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy of Wisconsin led the hunt for Communists. He said a Communist network existed in the U.S. government. He called government employees to defend themselves against his charges. Many of his charges were based on little evidence. The word “McCarthyism” came to describe a reckless use of unproven charges. Millions of Americans believed McCarthy, but later came to view him as a bully with little basis for his accusations. Congress also turned against him, and the Senate voted to censure him in December 1954, or formally criticize him for conduct unbecoming a senator.
Korean War
Domino theory - a Cold War policy that suggested a communist government in one nation would quickly lead to communist takeovers in neighboring countries, each falling like dominoes. The U.S. feared that if one country turned communist, then the surrounding countries were also in danger of turning communist.
Combat - Korea was divided in half along the 38th parallel after WWII. The North was communist, and the South was controlled by a U.S.-backed government.
Conflict with Truman and MacArthur - North Korea’s invasion alarmed Truman. He believed that the Soviets supported their attack. Truman quickly ordered American forces into action, and asked the U.N. to also take action. The U.N. called on North Korea to remove its forces from South Korea. When they refused, the U.N. agreed to send in troops. Most of the U.N. forces were commanded by WWII hero Douglas MacArthur. MacArthur had great success initially pushing the North back. Then, he pressed Truman to order an invasion of the North. He assured Truman that neither China nor the Soviets would enter the war. As MacArthur’s troops pushed the North back towards the Chinese border, Chinese Communists led by President Mao Zedong saw this as a threat and sent in a force of thousands of troops into Korea. They drove MacArthur back into the South. A stalemate ensued, and then MacArthur tried to convince Truman to use atomic bombs, but Truman feared that would lead to a larger war. MacArthur then criticized Truman, which led to Truman firing MacArthur. Talks to end the war started in 1951, but negotiations dragged on and a cease-fire agreement wasn’t reached until 1953 under Dwight D. Eisenhauer.
1952 Election & Eisenhower Campaign
Republican Dwight D. Eisenhower defeated Democrat Illinois Governor Adlai E. Stevenson. Eisenhower had been a WWII hero who led the Allied forces in Europe and the successful invasion of Normandy on D-Day. HIs campaign slogan was “we like Ike.”
Eisenhower & the CIA
Eisenhower started using the CIA to do secret actions around the world as a way to combat the Soviets and Communists. In his first year as President, he authorized the CIA to deal with a problem in Iran that had started under Truman. The CIA successfully overthrew Iran’s Prime Minister and restored their shah’s power, which kept the Communists from having power in Iran.
Interstate Highway Act
The Federal Aid Highway Act of 1956, also known as the National Interstate and Defense Highways Act, was enacted on June 29, 1956, when President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the bill into law. With an original authorization of $25 billion for the construction of 41,000 miles (66,000 km) of the Interstate Highway System over a 10-year period, it was the largest public works project in American history through that time.
The addition of the term “defense” in the act’s title was for two reasons: First, some of the original cost was diverted from defense funds. Secondly, most U.S. Air Force bases have a direct link to the system. One of the stated purposes was to provide access in order to defend the United States during a conventional or nuclear war with the Soviet Union and its communist allies.
Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas (1954)
In previous Supreme Court rulings (Plessy vs. Ferguson), they had upheld segregation (separate but equal). In reality, the separate facilities were not equal at all. Thurgood Marshall was the chief lawyer of the NAACP, and he decided to challenge the separate but equal idea in schools. To do so, he used the case of 7 7 year-old Linda Brown in Topeka, Kansas. The African-American girl was not allowed to attend an all-white school that was just a few blocks from her house. Instead, she had to go to an all-African-American school across town. Her family had asked a court to let her go to the nearby school and lost. Marshall took their case all the way to the Supreme Court. In the case of Brown vs. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, Marshall argued that under segregation, schools provided for African-American students were not and could not be equal. On May 17, 1954, the Court gave a unanimous 9-0 ruling that stated separating schoolchildren by race went against the Constitution. The ruling reversed the previous ruling in Plessy vs. Ferguson. Chief Justice Earl Warren wrote “In the field of public education, the doctrine of separate but equal has no place. Separate educational facilities are unequal.” The ruling only applied to public schools, but the impact was far deeper. It helped many people see that it was time to oppose other forms of discrimination.
Rosa Parks & Bus Boycott
Rosa Parks was an African American who lived and worked in Montgomery, Alabama. She also served as secretary of the local chapter of the NAACP. On December 1, 1955, she boarded a city bus and found a seat in the “whites only” seating area. The bus driver ordered Parks to move, but she refused. AT the next stop, police arrested her and fined her $10. The arrest led African Americans in the city to boycott the city buses. They had strength in numbers, as about 75% of bus riders in Montgomery were African American. The boycott lasted more than a year. Finally, the Supreme Court ruled that the bus segregation law was unconstitutional. In December 1956, the boycott ended.
Martin Luther King, Jr. & Civil Disobedience
During the bus boycott in Montgomery, Alabama, a young minister named Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., arose to speak out. Not yet widely known, Dr. King was a powerful speaker , and he inspired the crowd. The victory in Montgomery helped make Dr. King a leader in the civil rights movement. Dr. King encouraged his followers to disobey unjust laws without using violence, which is called civil disobedience. He was certain that using such a method of protest would one day lead the government to end segregation.
MLK’s I Have a Dream Speech
Dr. King delivered the famous I Have a Dream speech as he stood on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial at the March on Washington. He shared his vision of a changed country in the speech.
Malcolm X & Black Power
Malcolm X emerged as an important voice for African Americans at the height of the Civil Rights movement. He was a leader in the Nation of Islam - also known as the Black Muslims. He criticized the civil rights goal of integration and said the best way for African Americans to achieve racial justice was to live apart from whites.
Stokely Carmichael became the leader of the SNCC led the call for Black Power. This philosophy of racial pride encouraged African Americans to create their own culture. He and others called for complete change of society through revolution. The Black Panther Party formed in Oakland, California. The Panthers represented a growing frustration among urban African Americans. They were angry about poverty and a lack of jobs. They demanded reforms and armed themselves. They were involved in several clashes with the police.
Election of 1960
Democrat John F. Kennedy ran against Republican Vice President Richard M. Nixon. This was the first televised presidential debate. Polls showed Nixon leading for much of the campaign, but Kennedy won a close election.
JFK’s Background
JFK was from a wealthy and power family. He also became the nation’s first Roman Catholic President. He was a hero in WWII, serving in the Navy. When the Japanese sank the patrol boat he commanded, Kennedy saved the life of an injured crew member by swimming to shore with him on his back. HIs political career began in 1946 when he won a seat in Congress from Massachusetts. 6 years later, he was elected to the U.S. Senate.
Bay of Pigs Invasion
Kennedy faced a serious challenge in Cuba. Cuban rebel leader Fidel Castro seized power and set up a communist dictatorship, and became an ally to the Soviet Union. Cuba is only 90 miles from the U.S. The CIA made a plan to overthrow Castro under Eisenhower. They tried to have Cuban exiles land in Cuba and then start a rebellion against Castro. When the invasion started, it did not go well, and Cuban forces crushed the invasion after Kennedy refused to send air support. Kennedy then no longer trusted the CIA and military advice. Latin American nations also lost trust in Kennedy. The Soviets also though Kennedy was not a strong leader and could be bullied.
Cuban Missile Crisis
The most dangerous Cold War crisis happened in 1967. The U.S. found out that the Soviets were building nuclear missile launch sites in Cuba. Missiles could reach the U.S. in minutes from there. Kennedy ordered a naval blockade of Cuba until the Soviets removed their missiles. Kennedy threatened to destroy any Soviet ship that tried to break through the blockade. Kennedy warned that any attack from Cuba against a western nation would result in a nuclear attack on the Soviet Union. After 5 days, the Soviet ships turned back. After the crisis, Kennedy and Khrushchev worked to build better relations.
Civil Rights - March on Washington (1963)
To rally support for Kennedy’s civil rights bill, Dr. King and the SCLC called for a march on Washington, D.C. The date was set for August 28, 1963. More than 200,000 people of all colors and from all over the country arrived to take part.
Counterculture Movement - Woodstock and Hippies
Some opposition to the Vietnam war came from the counterculture, a movement that rejected traditional American values. Popular music played a role in communicating counterculture ideas. Some parents were troubled by the music and other symbols of counterculture such as torn blue jeans and long hair for males. Woodstock was a large outdoor concert in 1969 that symbolized the anti-war counterculture movement in America. Members of the counterculture movement were called hippies.
1964 Civil Rights Act
President Kennedy did not live to see passage of his civil rights bill, as he was assassinated in November 1963. After taking office, President Lyndon B. Johnson took up the challenge. He pushed Congress to pass the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The law outlawed discrimination in hiring. It ended segregation in stores, restaurants, theaters, hotels, and public places. It banned discrimination by race, gender, religion, and national origin.
Kennedy Assassination
On November 22, 1963, Kennedy visited Dallas with his wife, Jacqueline. As the president’s car drove through the city, an assassin struck. Kennedy was shot and killed. Lee Harvey Oswald was arrested and charged with the killing. But, he was murdered as he was being moved from one jail to another. Some Americans believe that the Kennedy assassination was a conspiracy and was an act planned by more than just one person. A commission headed by Supreme Court Chief Justice Earl Warren later investigated the assassination and stated that Oswald had acted alone. Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson took over as President.
Election of 1964
It was held on Tuesday, November 3, 1964. Incumbent Democratic United States President Lyndon B. Johnson defeated Barry Goldwater, the Republican nominee, in a landslide. With 61.1% of the popular vote, Johnson won the largest share of the popular vote of any candidate since the largely uncontested 1820 election.
LBJ’s Background
Born in rural Texas, grew up in a 3 room house in poverty. Worked his way through college and got into politics.
LBJ’s Great Society
On July 2, 1964, President Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The law outlawed discrimination based on race, religion, color, national origin, or sex. He also signed the Economic Opportunity Act as the foundation of the War on Poverty. It established the Office of Economic Opportunity to direct and coordinate educational, employment, and training programs. To improve education, he signed the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, which committed the federal government to help, for the first time, local school districts whose students come from low-income families. The Head Start program launched, designed to give underprivileged kids a head start before beginning first grade. Johnson signed an amendment to the Social Security Act creating Medicaid and Medicare, which were health insurance programs for the elderly and low-income individuals and families. He signed the Air Quality Act, which granted the government increased authority to control air pollution. For consumer protection, Johnson signed a number of laws including truth-in-packaging requirements. It created the Consumer Product Safety Commission and the Child Safety Act. Johnson signed the Immigration Act, which abolished the national origin formula that had been in place that gave favoritism to European people over others trying to come to America.
Vietnam War - Causes
In WWII Japan captured the French colony of Indochina, which included today’s countries of Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. Vietnam’s leader Ho Chi Minh declared independence when Japan surrendered. The French were not willing to give it up because it was a valuable colony with a lot of resources. Ho Chi Minh and his forces fought a long, bloody war against France until they won in 1954. In 1954, the U.S., France, China, and the Soviet Union met at the Geneva Accords and reached a peace agreement that split Vietnam into two halves. The North would be let by communist nationalists, and the South would be controlled by non-communists supported by the U.S. The U.S. made it clear they would act if the North attacked the South. Ngo Dinh Diem became the leader in the South. He refused to have free elections and cracked down on communists in the South. They responded by forming a group called the Vietcong. In 1959, on orders from Ho Chi Minh, the Vietcong started a war with the Diem regime in the South. Diem did horrifying things to people of other religions, like Buddhists. In 1963, the U.S. had to withdraw its support of Diem. In November 1963, the South’s army overthrew the government and assassinated Diem.
Gulf of Tonkin Resolution
After North Vietnamese patrol boats attacked American ships near North Vietnam, Congress gave President Johnson broad power to use American forces.
Combat in the Vietnam War
Fighting was very difficult. On the ground, it was covered in muddy, thick forests, swampy rice paddies, and dense jungle. It was easy for the North to hide from U.S. forces, and they used guerilla tactics.
Credibility Gap and Media/TV Influence
Credibility gap is a term that came into wide use with journalism, political and public discourse in the United States during the 1960s and 1970s. At the time, it was most frequently used to describe public skepticism about the Lyndon B. Johnson administration’s statements and policies on the Vietnam War. Major newspapers and magazines openly criticized the conduct of the war. The Johnson administration developed a credibility gap - fewer people trusted what they said about the war.
