Final Chem. Flashcards
Nucleic acids
Polymers of repeating units linked together in a chain
Each repeating unit of polymers contains each of the following
- Five carbon sugar: a ribose or deoxyribose
- a phosphate
- a base: either a pyrimidine or purine
3 pyrimidines
Uracil, thymine, cytosine
2 purines
Adenine, guanine
Enzyme that converts ATP to cAMP
Adenylyl Cyclase
Enzyme that converts GTP to cGMP
Guanylate cyclase
Nucleotides based on adenine and guanine are involved in
Energy transmission (kreb and citric cycle), signal conduction, second messenger systems and replication of DNA.
Adenine always matches up with
Thymine
Two hydrogens exchanged
Guanine always matches up with
Cytosine
Three hydrogens exchanged
What unwinds the double helix
Helicase
Polymerase chain reaction
Technique mimics the natural process of replication , labs depend on PCR to provide medical and criminal data, and viral infections can be identified
Types of RNA
Ribosomal, messenger, and transfer
Each amino acid
Has at least one codon that codes for it,, some have two, three and a few have six different codons
What read mRNA
Ribosomes
Have two subunits, small and large
Bacteria contain
Extra chromosomal DNA called plasmids
Metabolism —>
Catabolism: breakdown of biomolecules
Anabolism: synthesis of biomolecules
During energy shortage ADP will give up energy and a phosphate group and form
AMP, in extreme cases AMP will give up energy and a phosphate to leave adenosine
Acts as carriers of chemical groups from one compound to another during enzyme reactions
Coenzymes
Many coenzymes are made from
Vitamins and nucleotides
Critical coenzyme in catabolism and functions as a carrier of a two carbon group; acyl, genes acyle CoA
Coenzymes A (CoA)
Acyl group
2 carbon piece derived from the breakup of carbohydrates, fatty acids, amino acids.
NAD+
Made from ADP and the vitamin nicotinamide
Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)
Made from ADP and the vitamin riboflavin
Pyruvate two key pathways
Aerobic metabolism and anaerobic metabolism (no oxygen–gylcolysis)
Three carbon piece from sugar
Pyruvate
Conversion of glucose to pyruvate is the gateway to
Oxidation of carbohydrates
Yeast
Pyruvate in the anaerobic situation, reduce NADH to NAD+ and through two enzymatic steps convert pyruvate into ethanol and carbon dioxide
One cycle of the citric acid cycle consumes one acetyl group (two carbons) and yields
Three NADH
One FADH+
One cycle of citric acid cycle yields
since one glucose molecule feeds the citric cycle twice that gives a total of 20 ATP
3 NADH reduced to NAD+ yields
7.5 ATP
1 FADH2 reduced to FAD yields
1.5 ATP
1 GTP is equivalent to
1 ATP
2 NADH will provide
5 ATP
Glycolysis will provide
7 ATP
Oxidation of pyruvate
5 ATP
A total ATP the previous from one glucose molecule possible
32 ATP
Energy required to form bonds between glucose rings
UTP (uridine triphosphate)
Glycogen is stored in
Liver, muscles, kidneys, intestines and other organs for ready access
Insulin
Secreted by the B Islet cells of the pancreas in response to rising blood sugar levels
Glucagon
Secreted by the a islet cells in response to lower sugar levels
Epinephrine
Sympathetic neurotransmitter,, once soured adrenal medulla
Digestion of fats
Begins with emulsification with bile and the action of specialized enzymes called lipases
The largest lipoproteins that enter blood stream by drainage through lymph system of the gut
Chylomicrons
VLDL
Very low density lipoprotein
Secreted by liver and carry triglycerides
LDL
Low density lipoproteins
Primary transport lipoproteins for serum cholesterol
HDL
High density lipoproteins are the primary REVERSE transport lipoproteins for serum cholesterol
As the level of acetyl CoA rise,the liver converts the excess into what keystone bodies
Acetoacetate
B-hydroxybutyrate
Acetone
Amino acids cannot be stored and they are being actively used for one of the following
Structure; muscle, albumin
Function; enzymes, neurotransmitters
Fuel (catabolism)
Three outcomes for an amine group when the amino acid is catabolized or broken up
Transamination, deamination, urea formation
Patients with liver failure have difficulty processing proteins
They cannot make new amino acids
They cannot convert ammonia into urea
High levels of ammonia in blood test
Pt cannot convert ammonia to urea
High levels of urea tells you what
A patient is in renal failure
Oxygen diffuses
From the Alveoli through the capillary wall into red blood cells
Red blood cells ability to handle relatively large amounts of gasses is enhanced by two systems
1) hemoglobin to capture and carry oxygen and release it where it is needed
2) carbonic anhydrase converts carbon dioxide to carbonic acid and back as needed
Abnormal glucose in urine
Diabetes or alimentary glycosuria
Abnormal protein in urine
Renal damage, nephritis, bladder infection
Abn ketones in urine
Diabetes, starvation, high fat diets
Abn pus/ luekocytes in urine
Renal or bladder infection
Abn hemoglobin in urine
Lysis of red blood cells
Bile pigments
Cirrhosis of liver, hepatitis, obstruction of common bile duct
Na+
Sodium
Key in nerve conduction and muscle contraction
K+
Potassium
Involved in energy processing and protein building
Ca++
Calcium
Highly protein bound and only the unbound is physiologically active
Mg++
Magnesium
Essential in proper neuromuscular conduction
Cl-
Chloride
High levels can result in acidosis
PO4–
Phosphate
Most critical anion in the processing and production of energy substrate
ph falls below 7.35
Acidosis
Ph above 7.45
Alkylosis
4 buffer systems include
Bicarbonate buffer
Ammonia buffer
Phosphate buffer
Plasma protein
Respiratory control of ph
Carbon dioxide drops in blood while passing through lungs, carbonic anhydrase facilitates conversion of carbonic acid back to water and carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is exhaled out of lungs, raising the pH of the blood
Gasses are carried into blood by
Arterial, capillary, venous
Three fluid containing areas
Vascular (blood)
Intracellular
Interstitial spaces
Ph ref ranges gas and blood ph
7.4-7.5
Chloride anion high levels suggest and low levels
Acidosis and low legal alkalosis
Bicarbonate anion high levels and low levels
Alkalosis
And low levels acidosis
BUN
Excreted through the kidneys, high levels suggestive of poor kidney function or dehydration. Low values suggest poor nutrition or poor hepatic function.
S Cr
Excreted through kidneys and probably best marker of renal function.
Low muscle mass leads to less production of creatinine
Calcium
Critical for nerve conduction (as are sodium and potassium)
Low levels can lead to poor cardiac, muscle or nerve conduction
High levels can lead to muscle cramping, dysrrythmias and pain
CMP
Contains BMP results plus seven more which provides important liver function and nutritional results.
AST
Enzyme released from injured or dying liver cells
Liver injury
ALT
Enzyme released from injured dying cells, more specific to liver I just than AST.
ALP
Enzyme released from injured or dying liver cells and with bone disorders when unusual bone growth occurs, elevated suggests bile duct injury
Total
Bilirubin
Measure forms of bilirubin in blood serum. Bilirubin is processed by liver and excreted in the bile and comes out in stool.
Albumin
Blood serum protein providing much of osmotic pressure, keeping the water in the blood stream and not moving into tissues. Low levels can be due to liver failure and high levels of inflammation or malnutrition.
Globulin
Serum proteins made up of immune globulins (antibodies) low levels suggest immune problems or malnutrition
Total protein
Sum of albumin and globulin, expressed in ratio. Abn levels suggest immune issues including forms of lymphoma and leukemias
