Final A&P II Flashcards

1
Q

4 stages of labor

A

Early Labor: labor pains
Active Labor: 10cm dilation, effacement
Fetal Birth: crowning, fetal expulsion
Placental Delivery

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2
Q

Simple squamous epithelium

A
  • usually allows filtration or rapid diffusion; thin permeable barrier
    • serous membranes: pleurae, pericardium and peritoneum alveoli of the lungs
    • endocardium of the heart endothelium of the blood vessels
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3
Q

Stratified squamous epithelium

A

-multiple layers; protects from friction and abrasion
• mouth
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx
• esophagus
• anus
vagina

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4
Q

Simple cuboidal epithelium:

A

absorption and secretion of small solutes such as glucose and ions
nephrons: differences among cells of the proximal and distal tubules

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5
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

-allows absorption and secretion of large molecules- proteins, mucus
• stomach, small and large intestines
• endometrium of the uterus (uterine glands secrete uterine “milk”)

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6
Q

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium mixed with goblet cells-

A

(“Respiratory epithelium”)
• nasal cavity
• nasopharynx
• trachea
• bronchi

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7
Q

Goblet cells:

A

modified simple columnar cells that secrete mucus

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8
Q

Podocytes:

A

modified epithelial cells that help form the glomerular capsule of the nephron with small extensions that help in the filtration process

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9
Q

Blood Flow

A

Starting right atrium
To right ventricle
To pulmonary trunk
To lungs (pulmonary circuit)-oxygenated
Left side of the heart four pulmonary veins
Left atrium
To left ventricle
To aorta
To body (systemic circuit)
To superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) coronary sinus

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10
Q

4 Heart Valves
Atrioventricular Valves
Semilunar Valves

A

Atrioventricular Valves
Right AV valve (tricuspid) prevents regurgitation of blood back into the right atrium
Left AV valve (bicuspid or mitral) prevents regurgitation of blood back in to the left atrium

Semilunar Valves separate each ventricle from the blood vessel (artery) into which it ejects
Right SL valve (pulmonary)
Left SL valve (aortic)

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11
Q

The AV valves are already open and the ventricles are partially filled with blood BEFORE the atria contract

A

TRUE

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12
Q

What receives oxygen-poor blood from the superior and inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus (posterior side)

A

Right Atrium

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13
Q

What receives oxygen-rich blood from the left and right pulmonary veins (two from each lung)

A

Left Atrium

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14
Q

Oxygen-rich blood returns through the?

A

Left and right pulmonary veins (from the lungs) and enters the LA

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15
Q

The right atrium receives blood from which of the following vessels

A

Superior Vena Cava
Inferior Vena Cava
Coronary Sinus

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16
Q

The atria contract when ventricles are

A

80% filled
Completes the filling of the ventricles

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17
Q

2 Circuits of Blood
REPLIES
Right Pulmonary
Left Systemic

A

Pulmonary Circuit (right side pump) pumps blood to the lungs
Systemic Circuit (left side pump) pumps blood to the body

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18
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

From body to heart to lungs
Vessels, chambers and valves as blood travels from the body to heart to lungs

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19
Q

The real master endocrine gland

A

Hypothalamus
Used to be the anterior pituitary

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20
Q

Testosterone

A

Travels in blood to other body sites, stimulates maturation of male genitalia, development of secondary sex characteristics
GnRH gonadotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus,stimulates secretion of FSH & LH from anterior pituitary, gonads, estrogen progesterone and testosterone
Spermatogenis

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21
Q

What hormones provoke GnRH

A

Neurohormones from the hypothalamus control the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, the anterior pituitary secretes tropic hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete their hormones-estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

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22
Q

Hypothalamic Pituitary Gonadal Axis
Males

A

Regulated only by negative feedback
↑ GnRH leads to ↑ FSH and LH which lead to ↑ spermatogenesis and ↑ testosterone production
When sperm count and testosterone levels are sufficient, then GnRH FSH and LH secretion decrease back to normal

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23
Q

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Gonadal Axis
Females

A

Regulated by negative and positive feedback
↑ GnRH secretion from hypothalamus leads first to ↑ FSH and development of a dominant oocyte
Estrogen from oocyte stimulates proliferation of the uterine lining
High estrogen levels trigger high LH secretion which triggers ovulation and development of a corpus luteum
Progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates secretory phase in the uterus

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24
Q

The Uterine Cycle 3 phases

A

Secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries during the ovarian cycle promote the monthly changes seen in the endometrium of the uterus during the uterine (menstrual) cycle

Menstrual Phase
Proliferative Phase
Secretory Phase

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25
Menstrual Phase
Days 1-5 functional layer of endometrium is shed, bleeding occurs Estrogen and progesterone levels drop when corpus luteum dies. Stratum Functionale of endometrium is shed. Bleeding occurs
26
Proliferation Phase
Days 6-14 endometrium regrows Estrogen from the dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow.
27
Secretory Phase
Days 15-28 endometrium secretes nutrients and expands its blood supply to prepare for implantation Progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates increased blood supply. Stimulates glands to secrete “uterine milk” to prepare for the implantation of a oocyte
28
Early follicular phase: GnRH stimulates FSH and LH STEP 1
A new ovarian cycle begins on Day 1 (early follicular phase) (RECALL: Day 1 is the same in the ovarian and uterine cycles: First day of menstruation) 1. GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus stimulates FSH and LH secretion from the anterior pituitary
29
Early and mid Follicular Phase: FSH and LH target the follicles Step 2
2. FSH stimulates several follicles to grow Granulosa cells secrete estrogens LH stimulates thecal cells to secrete androgens which are converted into estrogens RESULTS: Estrogen levels rise and become slightly elevated One of the follicles is becoming dominant
30
Early and midfollicular phases: negative feedback inhibits FSH, LH release Step 3
3. When estrogen level is slightly elevated there is negative feedback control Estrogen inhibits GnRH, LH, FSH secretion Inhibin from the follicle inhibits FSH secretion Decrease in FSH means only the dominant follicle will develop further Prevents premature ovulation Slightly elevated estrogen and rising inhibin levels inhibit FSH secretion
31
Late Follicular Phase Positive feedback stimulates LH, FSH Surges Step 4
4. Dominant follicle is now secreting a high level of estrogen Control switches to positive feedback High estrogen levels trigger a large LH surge and a smaller FSH surge
32
Ovulatory and Luteal phases: LH surge Triggers ovulation; formation of corpus luteum Step 5
5. LH surge Occurs around Day 14 Triggers two events: a. Ovulation Oocyte is released and will be drawn into the uterine tube b. Formation of the corpus luteum: Ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum Luteal phase begins Corpus luteum now secretes progesterone and estrogen and inhibin
33
Luteal phase: Negative Feedback inhibits LH FSH release Step 6
6. Negative feedback resumes Corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogen and inhibin, which inhibit GnRH, LH and FSH secretion Prevents further LH surges and ovulation of additional oocytes When the corpus luteum dies, GnRH, LH and FSH secretion start to increase. New follicular phase begins.
34
Corpus luteum
Develops from the ruptured follicle, secretes progesterone and estrogen Degenerates and forms a corpus albicans (scar tissue)
35
Ectopic Pregnancy
Tubal, Interstitial (fundic), cervical Implantation occurs somewhere other than the uterus
36
Uterus Histology
Inner surface is simple columnar epithelium
37
Bartholin Glands
Are analogous to the bulbourethal glands in the male (produces thick, clear mucus to lubricate spongy urethra during sexual arousal)
38
Penis Anatomy shaft-3 cylindrical columns of erectile tissue
Corpus Cavernosa-2 large columns on the dorsal aspect of the penis shaft Corpus spongiosum-1 small column along the ventral aspect of the shaft that surrounds the urethra Erectile tissue: Spongy network of connective tissue and smooth muscle Has open vascular caverns that fill with blood during an erection
39
Inhibin
Corpus luteum secreted and prohibits additional ovulations
40
Dartos muscle
Wrinkles scrotal skin (rugae) smooth muscle pulls scrotum close to the body
41
Proximal Tubule tubular secretion
PCT main site for secretion Controls blood PH H+ secretion to HCO3- reabsorption removing undesirable substances that have been passively reabsorbed (urea and Uric acid by “solvent drag” Riding body of excess K+ K+ coupled with Na+ reabsorption Regulated by aldosterone in late DCT and collecting duct
42
Ductus (VAS) Deferens
Male carries semen and urine Passes through inguinal canal to pelvic cavity Expands to form ampulla joins duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct 3 named regions Prostatic urethra Membraneous urethra Spongy urethra
43
Female Duct System
Uterine tubes, uterus and vagina are all part of female duct system Uterine tubes transport the sperm to the oocyte and transport the fertilized egg to the uterus
44
HcG
GnRH LH FSH stay inhibited prevents further ovulation, menstruation, endometrium is maintained hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone, estrogen and inhibin for the first three months of gestation Chorion (fetal part of placenta) secretes hCG
45
Sperm anatomy
Head has acrosomal cap: an organelle derived from Golgi bodies. Single membrane bound acrosome contains lytic enzyme hyaluronidase to dissolve hyaluronic acid, a glue-like material which binds follicular cells around ovum.
46
3 phases of ejaculation
Ejaculation Phases: Orgasm (climax): release of sperm Resolution: muscular and psychological relaxation Refractory (latent): period during which another orgasm cannot be achieved; can last minutes to hours; lengthens with age
47
Sperm flow
Testes produce sperm (sermatogenesis), secretes testosterone Epididymis stores sperm and the site of sperm maturation Ductus vas deferens transports sperm to the ejaculatory duct by peristalsis Ampulla of ductus deferens Meet in the ejaculatory duct that carries sperm into the urethra Urethra carries ejaculate out of the body
48
Site of sperm production
Seminiferous tubule Septa divide testis into ~250 labels, each containing 1-4 seminiferous tubules(site of sperm production Spermatogenesis and secretion of testosterone take place in the seminiferous tubules
49
Uterus anatomy
3 regions Fundus Body (corpus) Cervix
50
Prostate gland
secretes milky slightly acid fluid (citrate) enzymes and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) which plays a role in sperm activation
51
Epididymis
Stores sperm and is site of sperm maturation
52
Ejaculatory duct
Carries sperm into urethra
53
Ductus deferens
Transports sperm to the ejaculatory duct by peristalsis
54
Seminal gland (Vesicles)
secrete alkaline seminal fluid which neutralizes acidity of the male urethra and vagina Mixes with sperm to form semen, 2-5 ml are ejaculated containing 20-150 million sperm/ml
55
Diabetes Mellitus
Normally 100% absorbed at the PCT Carriers reach transport maximum cannons reabsorb all glucose resulting in glucosuria (glucose loss in urine) Polyuria (water is lost in urine as it follows glucose) Symptoms of diabetes dehydration and extreme thirst.
56
Steroid and Amino Based Hormones
57
3 plasma components
1. Erythrocytes red blood cells 2. Platelets 3. Leukocytes white blood cells GLUCOSE AMINO ACIDS FATTY ACIDS PLASMA PROTEINS GLOBULINS ALBUMIN AND FIBRINOGEN Most abundant Cation Na+ Most abundant plasma protein is ALBUMIN (60%) functions as carrier of the other molecules, as blood buffer, and contributes to plasma osmotic pressure
58
Structure of Hemoglobin
hemoglobin consists of red heme pigment bound to the protein globin Globin 4 polypeptide chains (2alpha and 2 beta) & 4 heme groups Heme pigment bonded to each globin chain gives blood red color and central ion atom binds one O2 One O2 binds to Fe atom of each heme group Each molecule of Hb can bind and transport up to 4 oxygen molecules
59
Tunica abuginea
Inner layer, fibrous capsule of the testes
60
Ovary
Are homologous to the testes, produce/develop the sex cells and secrete the sex hormones Site of follicles
61
Hormones released by pituitary gland
Posterior Pituitary- ADH & Oxytocin Anterior all amino based 4 tropic hormones(causes secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands) GH growth hormone PRL prolactin FSH follicle-stimulating hormone (tropic) LH luteinizing hormone (tropic) TSH thyroid stimulating hormone (tropic) ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone (tropic)
62
Hypophyseal portal system Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axes
Hypothalamus CRH Anterior pituitary Secretion of gluco- and mineralo-corticosteroid hormones is stimulated by ACTH- adrenocorticotropic hormone. ACTH is an anterior pituitary tropic hormone. Secretion of ACTH is stimulated by CRH – corticotropin-releasing hormone. CRH is a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and travels in the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary.
63
Hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
Posterior pituitary ADH and Oxytocin
64
Neutrophil
Multilobed nucleus, pale red and blue cytoplasmic granules Most numerous 50-70% of all WBCs Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs) Hydrolytic enzymes Antimicrobial proteins First WBCs to arrive on scene of acute bacterial infection (appendicitis, meningitis, or injury *inflammation Attracted by chemotaxis Very phagocytic “bacteria slayers”and also attack some fungi First to arrive on scene
65
Eosinophils
Granules contain digestive enzymes Release enzymes to digest parasitic worms that are too large to phagocytize (tapeworm, flukes, pinworms, hookworms) May play a role in allergic reactions and asthma May modulate the immune response Bilobed nucleus red cytoplasmic granules
66
Basophils
Rarest WBCs Granules contain histamine Histamine: chemical mediator that is part of the inflammatory response Vasodilates blood vessels to bring more blood to an injury site Chemically attracts WBCs to site Responsible for common allergy symptoms- runny nose, watery eyes, itchy red skin (hives) We take antihistamines to combat their effect Bilobed nucleus, purplish-black cytoplasmic granules
67
(Leukocytes) Granulocyte & Agranulocytes
68
Lymphocytes
25% of all WBCs Mostly found in lymphoid tissue (e.g. lymph nodes, spleen) Some circulate in blood Have central role in immunity Two types of lymphocytes: T lymphocytes (T cells): act against virus-infected body cells, cancer cells B lymphocytes (B cells): give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies (immunoglobulin proteins) Antibodies bind to invaders; target them for destruction Large spherical nucleus, thin rim of pal blue cytoplasm
69
Monocytes
Largest of all leukocytes During an infection, they leave circulation by diapedesis and enter the tissues Monocytes differentiate into Macrophages, voracious phagocytes Second to arrive on scene of infection (after neutrophils) Defend against viruses, some intracellular bacterial parasites, chronic infections (e.g. tuberculosis) Help activate lymphocytes in an immune response Kidney-shaped nucleus, abundant pale blue cytoplasm
70
Platelets
Thrombocytes are not true cells Have no nucleus or organelles Are cell fragments Function to help stop bleeding by Forming temporary platelet plugs-seal small breaks in broken blood vessels Helping in clot formation (coagulation) Form from hematopoietic stem cells, hemocytoblast gives rise to megakaryoblast (mitosis without dividing cytoplasm) becomes megakarocyte Granules form in cytoplasm-contain chemicals for clotting
71
Uterus Layers
Endometrium innermost inner lining where the fertilized egg implants Stratum functionale-is shed during menstruation and retro’s in response to estrogen and progesterone Stratum basale is not shed Endometrium Myometrium Perimetrium
72
Urine flow
Nephrons, pyramids, papillae, minor calyces, major calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra
73
Cardiac Cycle
Ventricular Filling, atrial contraction-mid to late diastole Isovolumetric contraction phase, ventricular ejection phase- ventricular systole (atria in diastole) Isovolumetric relaxation-early diastole Ventricular filling
74
Muscular arteries
In arterial system (distributing vessels) NAMED in smooth muscles Distribute blood to body organs Have thick tunica media with more smooth muscle Active vasoconstriction-controls blood flow into organs Controlled by sympathetic vasomotor nerves Arteries 3 layers intima, media and externa strong thicker smooth muscle layer (tunica media) round lumen
75
Veins
Venous system small and large capacitance vessels Intima, Media, externa and lumens (very little smooth muscle) thinner smooth muscle walls and lower pressure but greater capacity 60% of body’s blood
76
Stomach Cell types Gastric Pit
Parietal Cells- secrete hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor and appetite-regulating hormone ghrelin G cells secrete gastrin to stimulate secretion of gastric acid (HCl) Enteroendocrine Cells secrete hormones that regulate digestion Surface epithelium-columnar Foveolar (mucous neck cells) secrete mucus to protect stomach lining similar to goblet cells Chief cells secrete enzymes gastric lipase, lepton and pepsinogen
77
Cardio ECG waves
P wave- Atrial depolarization initiated at SA node, causes P wave, sets off atrial contraction, atrial systole Small space after p wave and before q-impulse slows at AV node QRS complex Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization (relaxing) ventricles contract, atria repolarize and relax(no separate wave seen for atrial repolarization) Small space after qrs but before T-ventricles remain depolarized and contracted (plateau phase of AP) T wave Ventricular repolarization (relaxing)ventricles relax U wave Repolarization of papillary muscles or Purkinje Fibers
78
Respiratory air flow
Conducting zone External nose and nasal cavity Pharynx (naso, Oro, and laryngo-pharynx Larynx Trachea Bronchi; bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
79
4 heart chambers 4 heart valves Great vessels of the heart
Right Ventricle (RV) Right Atrium (RA) Left Ventricle (LV) Right Ventricle (RV) Atrioventricular Valves Right AV valve Tricuspid Left AV Valve Bicuspid *mitral Semilunar Valves Right SL Valve *pulmonary Left SL Valve * aortic Great vessels Superior vena cava Inferior vena cava Coronary sinus Left and right pulmonary veins *2 each Pulmonary trunk Left and Right pulmonary arteries *1 each
80
Stomach Anatomy
Cardiac Fundus Body Pylorus
81
What is happening at the PCT
Glomerular filtration Tubular reabsorption water (aquaporins), urea(solvent drag), solutes Na+, Cl- & K+ passively reabsorbed electrochemical gradient glucose and amino acids, HCO3 (bicarbonate ion) and secretion of H+
82
Hotspot
83
Blood Flow
84
Sperm hotspot
85
Female hotspot
86
Development of oocyte 6 steps
87
Development of oocyte
88
Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis male ABP
89
Internal anatomy of testis
90
Uterine and Ovarian Cycle
91
Penis anatomy Hotspot
92
Female anatomy hotspot
93
Which characterizes a respiratory acidosis
pH below 7.35 and Pco2 above 45 mm Hg Caused by the respiratory system Low pH coupled with high Pco2 suggest the respiratory system is causing acidosis If HCO3 above normal means HCO3- more absorbed renal system is compensating If HCO3 is normal renal system hasn’t had time to compensate
94
Amount of HCO3 in blood
Indicated body’s capacity to buffer acids
95
Respiratory acidosis
Pathology of respiratory system leading to hypoventilation and CO2 retention Shallow breathing due to overdose or CNS depressors Impaired gas exchange or lung function; emphysema, cystic fibrosis, chest injuries
96
Respiratory Alkalosis
Due to lack of O2 or strong emotions rather than pathology Excessive ventilation due to asthma or being in high altitude, trying to raise O2 levels at the expense of blowing CO2 Strong emotions such as pain, fear, anxiety causing hyperventilation ph above 7.45 Pco2 below 35mm Hg
97
Metabolic acidosis
Excessive alcohol intake ( acetic acid) Excessive loss of HCO3– (e.g. persistent diarrhea) Accumulation of lactic acid Excessive ketone production in diabetic crisis (ketoacidosis) Starvation Renal disease (not reabsorbing HCO3- or secreting H+ adequately) ph below 7.35 HCO3 below normal
98
Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis
Vomiting: loss of stomach acid (H+) Intake of excess base (e.g., antacids) pH is above 7.45 HCO3 above normal Pco2 above normal
99
1 early follicular phase 2 early and midfollicular phase target follicles 3 early and midfollicular phase negative feedback 4 late follicular phase positive feedback 5 ovulatory and Luteal phase LH surge 6 Luteal phase negative feedback
GnRH stimulates FSH and LH secretion1 GnRH secretions from hypothalamus stimulates FSH and LH anterior pituitary 2 fsh stim several follicles to grow granulosa cells secrete estrogens LH stims the Al cells converted to estrogen estrogens rises and elevated one follicle dominates 3 negative feedback estrogen legates inhibits GnRH LH FSH secrete inhibin from follicle inhibits FSH secretion the decrease means the dominate follicle will develop further and prevents further premature ovulation 4. LH SURGE dominants follicle secretes high estrogen control is positive feedback high estrogen triggers large LH surge and smaller FSH surge 5. LH SURGE day 14 triggers 2 events ovulation and corpus luteum formation-secretes progesterone and estrogen 6. Negative feedback resumes corpus luteum secretes progesterone estrogen and inhibin that inhibits GnRH Lh and FSH secretion prevents further lh surges and ovulation of additional oocytes When corpus luteum dies GnRH LH AND FSH secretion increases and new follicular phase begins