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A&P > Final A&P II > Flashcards

Final A&P II Flashcards

1
Q

4 stages of labor

A

Early Labor: labor pains
Active Labor: 10cm dilation, effacement
Fetal Birth: crowning, fetal expulsion
Placental Delivery

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2
Q

Simple squamous epithelium

A
  • usually allows filtration or rapid diffusion; thin permeable barrier
    • serous membranes: pleurae, pericardium and peritoneum alveoli of the lungs
    • endocardium of the heart endothelium of the blood vessels
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3
Q

Stratified squamous epithelium

A

-multiple layers; protects from friction and abrasion
• mouth
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx
• esophagus
• anus
vagina

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4
Q

Simple cuboidal epithelium:

A

absorption and secretion of small solutes such as glucose and ions
nephrons: differences among cells of the proximal and distal tubules

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5
Q

Simple columnar epithelium

A

-allows absorption and secretion of large molecules- proteins, mucus
• stomach, small and large intestines
• endometrium of the uterus (uterine glands secrete uterine “milk”)

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6
Q

Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium mixed with goblet cells-

A

(“Respiratory epithelium”)
• nasal cavity
• nasopharynx
• trachea
• bronchi

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7
Q

Goblet cells:

A

modified simple columnar cells that secrete mucus

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8
Q

Podocytes:

A

modified epithelial cells that help form the glomerular capsule of the nephron with small extensions that help in the filtration process

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9
Q

Blood Flow

A

Starting right atrium
To right ventricle
To pulmonary trunk
To lungs (pulmonary circuit)-oxygenated
Left side of the heart four pulmonary veins
Left atrium
To left ventricle
To aorta
To body (systemic circuit)
To superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) coronary sinus

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10
Q

4 Heart Valves
Atrioventricular Valves
Semilunar Valves

A

Atrioventricular Valves
Right AV valve (tricuspid) prevents regurgitation of blood back into the right atrium
Left AV valve (bicuspid or mitral) prevents regurgitation of blood back in to the left atrium

Semilunar Valves separate each ventricle from the blood vessel (artery) into which it ejects
Right SL valve (pulmonary)
Left SL valve (aortic)

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11
Q

The AV valves are already open and the ventricles are partially filled with blood BEFORE the atria contract

A

TRUE

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12
Q

What receives oxygen-poor blood from the superior and inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus (posterior side)

A

Right Atrium

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13
Q

What receives oxygen-rich blood from the left and right pulmonary veins (two from each lung)

A

Left Atrium

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14
Q

Oxygen-rich blood returns through the?

A

Left and right pulmonary veins (from the lungs) and enters the LA

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15
Q

The right atrium receives blood from which of the following vessels

A

Superior Vena Cava
Inferior Vena Cava
Coronary Sinus

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16
Q

The atria contract when ventricles are

A

80% filled
Completes the filling of the ventricles

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17
Q

2 Circuits of Blood
REPLIES
Right Pulmonary
Left Systemic

A

Pulmonary Circuit (right side pump) pumps blood to the lungs
Systemic Circuit (left side pump) pumps blood to the body

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18
Q

Pulmonary Circulation

A

From body to heart to lungs
Vessels, chambers and valves as blood travels from the body to heart to lungs

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19
Q

The real master endocrine gland

A

Hypothalamus
Used to be the anterior pituitary

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20
Q

Testosterone

A

Travels in blood to other body sites, stimulates maturation of male genitalia, development of secondary sex characteristics
GnRH gonadotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus,stimulates secretion of FSH & LH from anterior pituitary, gonads, estrogen progesterone and testosterone
Spermatogenis

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21
Q

What hormones provoke GnRH

A

Neurohormones from the hypothalamus control the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, the anterior pituitary secretes tropic hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete their hormones-estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone

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22
Q

Hypothalamic Pituitary Gonadal Axis
Males

A

Regulated only by negative feedback
↑ GnRH leads to ↑ FSH and LH which lead to ↑ spermatogenesis and ↑ testosterone production
When sperm count and testosterone levels are sufficient, then GnRH FSH and LH secretion decrease back to normal

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23
Q

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Gonadal Axis
Females

A

Regulated by negative and positive feedback
↑ GnRH secretion from hypothalamus leads first to ↑ FSH and development of a dominant oocyte
Estrogen from oocyte stimulates proliferation of the uterine lining
High estrogen levels trigger high LH secretion which triggers ovulation and development of a corpus luteum
Progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates secretory phase in the uterus

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24
Q

The Uterine Cycle 3 phases

A

Secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries during the ovarian cycle promote the monthly changes seen in the endometrium of the uterus during the uterine (menstrual) cycle

Menstrual Phase
Proliferative Phase
Secretory Phase

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25
Q

Menstrual Phase

A

Days 1-5 functional layer of endometrium is shed, bleeding occurs
Estrogen and progesterone levels drop when corpus luteum dies. Stratum Functionale of endometrium is shed. Bleeding occurs

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26
Q

Proliferation Phase

A

Days 6-14 endometrium regrows
Estrogen from the dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow.

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27
Q

Secretory Phase

A

Days 15-28 endometrium secretes nutrients and expands its blood supply to prepare for implantation
Progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates increased blood supply.
Stimulates glands to secrete “uterine milk” to prepare for the implantation of a oocyte

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28
Q

Early follicular phase: GnRH stimulates FSH and LH STEP 1

A

A new ovarian cycle begins on Day 1 (early follicular phase)
(RECALL: Day 1 is the same in the ovarian and uterine cycles: First day of menstruation)

  1. GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus stimulates FSH and LH secretion from the anterior pituitary
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29
Q

Early and mid Follicular Phase: FSH and LH target the follicles Step 2

A
  1. FSH stimulates several follicles to grow
    Granulosa cells secrete estrogens
    LH stimulates thecal cells to secrete androgens which are converted into estrogens
    RESULTS: Estrogen levels rise and become slightly elevated
    One of the follicles is becoming dominant
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30
Q

Early and midfollicular phases: negative feedback inhibits FSH, LH release
Step 3

A
  1. When estrogen level is slightly elevated there is negative feedback control
    Estrogen inhibits GnRH, LH, FSH secretion
    Inhibin from the follicle inhibits FSH secretion
    Decrease in FSH means only the dominant follicle will develop further
    Prevents premature ovulation
    Slightly elevated estrogen and rising inhibin levels inhibit FSH secretion
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31
Q

Late Follicular Phase Positive feedback stimulates LH, FSH Surges
Step 4

A
  1. Dominant follicle is now secreting a high level of estrogen
    Control switches to positive feedback
    High estrogen levels trigger a large LH surge and a smaller FSH surge
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32
Q

Ovulatory and Luteal phases: LH surge
Triggers ovulation; formation of corpus luteum
Step 5

A
  1. LH surge
    Occurs around Day 14
    Triggers two events:
    a. Ovulation
    Oocyte is released and will be drawn into the uterine tube
    b. Formation of the corpus luteum:
    Ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum
    Luteal phase begins
    Corpus luteum now secretes progesterone and estrogen and inhibin
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33
Q

Luteal phase: Negative Feedback inhibits LH FSH release
Step 6

A
  1. Negative feedback resumes
    Corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogen and inhibin, which inhibit GnRH, LH and FSH secretion
    Prevents further LH surges and ovulation of additional oocytes

When the corpus luteum dies, GnRH, LH and FSH secretion start to increase.
New follicular phase begins.

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34
Q

Corpus luteum

A

Develops from the ruptured follicle, secretes progesterone and estrogen
Degenerates and forms a corpus albicans (scar tissue)

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35
Q

Ectopic Pregnancy

A

Tubal, Interstitial (fundic), cervical
Implantation occurs somewhere other than the uterus

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36
Q

Uterus Histology

A

Inner surface is simple columnar epithelium

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37
Q

Bartholin Glands

A

Are analogous to the bulbourethal glands in the male (produces thick, clear mucus to lubricate spongy urethra during sexual arousal)

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38
Q

Penis Anatomy shaft-3 cylindrical columns of erectile tissue

A

Corpus Cavernosa-2 large columns on the dorsal aspect of the penis shaft

Corpus spongiosum-1 small column along the ventral aspect of the shaft that surrounds the urethra

Erectile tissue:
Spongy network of connective tissue and smooth muscle
Has open vascular caverns that fill with blood during an erection

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39
Q

Inhibin

A

Corpus luteum secreted and prohibits additional ovulations

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40
Q

Dartos muscle

A

Wrinkles scrotal skin (rugae) smooth muscle pulls scrotum close to the body

41
Q

Proximal Tubule tubular secretion

A

PCT main site for secretion
Controls blood PH H+ secretion to HCO3- reabsorption
removing undesirable substances that have been passively reabsorbed (urea and Uric acid by “solvent drag”
Riding body of excess K+ K+ coupled with Na+ reabsorption
Regulated by aldosterone in late DCT and collecting duct

42
Q

Ductus (VAS) Deferens

A

Male carries semen and urine
Passes through inguinal canal to pelvic cavity
Expands to form ampulla joins duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct
3 named regions
Prostatic urethra
Membraneous urethra
Spongy urethra

43
Q

Female Duct System

A

Uterine tubes, uterus and vagina are all part of female duct system
Uterine tubes transport the sperm to the oocyte and transport the fertilized egg to the uterus

44
Q

HcG

A

GnRH LH FSH stay inhibited prevents further ovulation, menstruation, endometrium is maintained hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone, estrogen and inhibin for the first three months of gestation
Chorion (fetal part of placenta) secretes hCG

45
Q

Sperm anatomy

A

Head has acrosomal cap: an organelle derived from Golgi bodies.
Single membrane bound acrosome contains lytic enzyme hyaluronidase to dissolve hyaluronic acid, a glue-like material which binds follicular cells around ovum.

46
Q

3 phases of ejaculation

A

Ejaculation Phases:
Orgasm (climax): release of sperm
Resolution: muscular and psychological relaxation
Refractory (latent): period during which another orgasm cannot be achieved; can last minutes to hours; lengthens
with age

47
Q

Sperm flow

A

Testes produce sperm (sermatogenesis), secretes testosterone
Epididymis stores sperm and the site of sperm maturation
Ductus vas deferens transports sperm to the ejaculatory duct by peristalsis
Ampulla of ductus deferens
Meet in the ejaculatory duct that carries sperm into the urethra
Urethra carries ejaculate out of the body

48
Q

Site of sperm production

A

Seminiferous tubule
Septa divide testis into ~250 labels, each containing 1-4 seminiferous tubules(site of sperm production
Spermatogenesis and secretion of testosterone take place in the seminiferous tubules

49
Q

Uterus anatomy

A

3 regions
Fundus
Body (corpus)
Cervix

50
Q

Prostate gland

A

secretes milky slightly acid fluid (citrate) enzymes and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) which plays a role in sperm activation

51
Q

Epididymis

A

Stores sperm and is site of sperm maturation

52
Q

Ejaculatory duct

A

Carries sperm into urethra

53
Q

Ductus deferens

A

Transports sperm to the ejaculatory duct by peristalsis

54
Q

Seminal gland (Vesicles)

A

secrete alkaline seminal fluid which neutralizes acidity of the male urethra and vagina
Mixes with sperm to form semen, 2-5 ml are ejaculated containing 20-150 million sperm/ml

55
Q

Diabetes Mellitus

A

Normally 100% absorbed at the PCT
Carriers reach transport maximum cannons reabsorb all glucose resulting in glucosuria (glucose loss in urine)
Polyuria (water is lost in urine as it follows glucose)
Symptoms of diabetes dehydration and extreme thirst.

56
Q

Steroid and Amino Based Hormones

A
57
Q

3 plasma components

A
  1. Erythrocytes red blood cells
  2. Platelets
  3. Leukocytes white blood cells

GLUCOSE AMINO ACIDS FATTY ACIDS
PLASMA PROTEINS GLOBULINS ALBUMIN AND FIBRINOGEN
Most abundant Cation Na+

Most abundant plasma protein is ALBUMIN (60%) functions as carrier of the other molecules, as blood buffer, and contributes to plasma osmotic pressure

58
Q

Structure of Hemoglobin

A

hemoglobin consists of red heme pigment bound to the protein globin
Globin 4 polypeptide chains (2alpha and 2 beta) & 4 heme groups
Heme pigment bonded to each globin chain gives blood red color and central ion atom binds one O2
One O2 binds to Fe atom of each heme group
Each molecule of Hb can bind and transport up to 4 oxygen molecules

59
Q

Tunica abuginea

A

Inner layer, fibrous capsule of the testes

60
Q

Ovary

A

Are homologous to the testes, produce/develop the sex cells and secrete the sex hormones
Site of follicles

61
Q

Hormones released by pituitary gland

A

Posterior Pituitary- ADH & Oxytocin
Anterior all amino based 4 tropic hormones(causes secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands)
GH growth hormone
PRL prolactin
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone (tropic)
LH luteinizing hormone (tropic)
TSH thyroid stimulating hormone (tropic)
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone (tropic)

62
Q

Hypophyseal portal system
Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axes

A

Hypothalamus CRH Anterior pituitary

Secretion of gluco- and mineralo-corticosteroid hormones is stimulated by ACTH- adrenocorticotropic hormone.
ACTH is an anterior pituitary tropic hormone.
Secretion of ACTH is stimulated by CRH – corticotropin-releasing hormone.
CRH is a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and travels in the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary.

63
Q

Hypothalamic hypophyseal tract

A

Posterior pituitary ADH and Oxytocin

64
Q

Neutrophil

A

Multilobed nucleus, pale red and blue cytoplasmic granules
Most numerous 50-70% of all WBCs
Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
Hydrolytic enzymes
Antimicrobial proteins
First WBCs to arrive on scene of acute bacterial infection (appendicitis, meningitis, or injury *inflammation
Attracted by chemotaxis
Very phagocytic “bacteria slayers”and also attack some fungi
First to arrive on scene

65
Q

Eosinophils

A

Granules contain digestive enzymes
Release enzymes to digest parasitic worms that are too large to phagocytize (tapeworm, flukes, pinworms, hookworms)
May play a role in allergic reactions and asthma
May modulate the immune response
Bilobed nucleus red cytoplasmic granules

66
Q

Basophils

A

Rarest WBCs
Granules contain histamine
Histamine: chemical mediator that is part of the inflammatory response
Vasodilates blood vessels to bring more blood to an injury site
Chemically attracts WBCs to site
Responsible for common allergy symptoms- runny nose, watery eyes, itchy red skin (hives)
We take antihistamines to combat their effect
Bilobed nucleus, purplish-black cytoplasmic granules

67
Q

(Leukocytes) Granulocyte & Agranulocytes

A
68
Q

Lymphocytes

A

25% of all WBCs
Mostly found in lymphoid tissue (e.g. lymph nodes, spleen)
Some circulate in blood
Have central role in immunity

Two types of lymphocytes:
T lymphocytes (T cells): act against virus-infected body cells, cancer cells
B lymphocytes (B cells): give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies (immunoglobulin proteins)
Antibodies bind to invaders; target them for destruction

Large spherical nucleus, thin rim of pal blue cytoplasm

69
Q

Monocytes

A

Largest of all leukocytes
During an infection, they leave circulation by diapedesis and enter the tissues
Monocytes differentiate into Macrophages, voracious phagocytes
Second to arrive on scene of infection (after neutrophils)
Defend against viruses, some intracellular bacterial parasites, chronic infections (e.g. tuberculosis)
Help activate lymphocytes in an immune response

Kidney-shaped nucleus, abundant pale blue cytoplasm

70
Q

Platelets

A

Thrombocytes are not true cells
Have no nucleus or organelles
Are cell fragments

Function to help stop bleeding by
Forming temporary platelet plugs-seal small breaks in broken blood vessels
Helping in clot formation (coagulation)
Form from hematopoietic stem cells, hemocytoblast gives rise to megakaryoblast (mitosis without dividing cytoplasm) becomes megakarocyte
Granules form in cytoplasm-contain chemicals for clotting

71
Q

Uterus Layers

A

Endometrium innermost inner lining where the fertilized egg implants
Stratum functionale-is shed during menstruation and retro’s in response to estrogen and progesterone
Stratum basale is not shed

Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium

72
Q

Urine flow

A

Nephrons, pyramids, papillae, minor calyces, major calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra

73
Q

Cardiac Cycle

A

Ventricular Filling, atrial contraction-mid to late diastole

Isovolumetric contraction phase, ventricular ejection phase- ventricular systole (atria in diastole)

Isovolumetric relaxation-early diastole

Ventricular filling

74
Q

Muscular arteries

A

In arterial system (distributing vessels) NAMED in smooth muscles
Distribute blood to body organs
Have thick tunica media with more smooth muscle
Active vasoconstriction-controls blood flow into organs
Controlled by sympathetic vasomotor nerves

Arteries 3 layers intima, media and externa strong thicker smooth muscle layer (tunica media) round lumen

75
Q

Veins

A

Venous system small and large capacitance vessels

Intima, Media, externa and lumens (very little smooth muscle) thinner smooth muscle walls and lower pressure but greater capacity 60% of body’s blood

76
Q

Stomach Cell types Gastric Pit

A

Parietal Cells- secrete hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor and appetite-regulating hormone ghrelin

G cells secrete gastrin to stimulate secretion of gastric acid (HCl)

Enteroendocrine Cells secrete hormones that regulate digestion

Surface epithelium-columnar

Foveolar (mucous neck cells) secrete mucus to protect stomach lining similar to goblet cells

Chief cells secrete enzymes gastric lipase, lepton and pepsinogen

77
Q

Cardio ECG waves

A

P wave- Atrial depolarization initiated at SA node, causes P wave, sets off atrial contraction, atrial systole

Small space after p wave and before q-impulse slows at AV node

QRS complex Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization (relaxing) ventricles contract, atria repolarize and relax(no separate wave seen for atrial repolarization)

Small space after qrs but before T-ventricles remain depolarized and contracted (plateau phase of AP)

T wave Ventricular repolarization (relaxing)ventricles relax

U wave Repolarization of papillary muscles or Purkinje Fibers

78
Q

Respiratory air flow

A

Conducting zone
External nose and nasal cavity
Pharynx (naso, Oro, and laryngo-pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi; bronchioles, terminal bronchioles

79
Q

4 heart chambers
4 heart valves
Great vessels of the heart

A

Right Ventricle (RV)
Right Atrium (RA)
Left Ventricle (LV)
Right Ventricle (RV)

Atrioventricular Valves
Right AV valve Tricuspid
Left AV Valve Bicuspid *mitral

Semilunar Valves
Right SL Valve *pulmonary
Left SL Valve * aortic

Great vessels
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Coronary sinus
Left and right pulmonary veins *2 each
Pulmonary trunk
Left and Right pulmonary arteries *1 each

80
Q

Stomach Anatomy

A

Cardiac
Fundus
Body
Pylorus

81
Q

What is happening at the PCT

A

Glomerular filtration
Tubular reabsorption water (aquaporins), urea(solvent drag), solutes Na+, Cl- & K+ passively reabsorbed electrochemical gradient glucose and amino acids, HCO3 (bicarbonate ion) and secretion of H+

82
Q

Hotspot

A
83
Q

Blood Flow

A
84
Q

Sperm hotspot

A
85
Q

Female hotspot

A
86
Q

Development of oocyte 6 steps

A
87
Q

Development of oocyte

A
88
Q

Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis male ABP

A
89
Q

Internal anatomy of testis

A
90
Q

Uterine and Ovarian Cycle

A
91
Q

Penis anatomy Hotspot

A
92
Q

Female anatomy hotspot

A
93
Q

Which characterizes a respiratory acidosis

A

pH below 7.35 and Pco2 above 45 mm Hg
Caused by the respiratory system

Low pH coupled with high Pco2 suggest the respiratory system is causing acidosis

If HCO3 above normal means HCO3- more absorbed renal system is compensating

If HCO3 is normal renal system hasn’t had time to compensate

94
Q

Amount of HCO3 in blood

A

Indicated body’s capacity to buffer acids

95
Q

Respiratory acidosis

A

Pathology of respiratory system leading to hypoventilation and CO2 retention
Shallow breathing due to overdose or CNS depressors
Impaired gas exchange or lung function; emphysema, cystic fibrosis, chest injuries

96
Q

Respiratory Alkalosis

A

Due to lack of O2 or strong emotions rather than pathology

Excessive ventilation due to asthma or being in high altitude, trying to raise O2 levels at the expense of blowing CO2
Strong emotions such as pain, fear, anxiety causing hyperventilation ph above 7.45 Pco2 below 35mm Hg

97
Q

Metabolic acidosis

A

Excessive alcohol intake ( acetic acid)
Excessive loss of HCO3– (e.g. persistent diarrhea)
Accumulation of lactic acid
Excessive ketone production in diabetic crisis (ketoacidosis)
Starvation
Renal disease (not reabsorbing HCO3- or secreting H+ adequately)
ph below 7.35 HCO3 below normal

98
Q

Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis

A

Vomiting: loss of stomach acid (H+)
Intake of excess base (e.g., antacids) pH is above 7.45 HCO3 above normal Pco2 above normal

99
Q

1 early follicular phase
2 early and midfollicular phase target follicles
3 early and midfollicular phase negative feedback
4 late follicular phase positive feedback
5 ovulatory and Luteal phase LH surge
6 Luteal phase negative feedback

A

GnRH stimulates FSH and LH secretion1 GnRH secretions from hypothalamus stimulates FSH and LH anterior pituitary
2 fsh stim several follicles to grow granulosa cells secrete estrogens LH stims the Al cells converted to estrogen estrogens rises and elevated one follicle dominates
3 negative feedback estrogen legates inhibits GnRH LH FSH secrete inhibin from follicle inhibits FSH secretion the decrease means the dominate follicle will develop further and prevents further premature ovulation
4. LH SURGE dominants follicle secretes high estrogen control is positive feedback high estrogen triggers large LH surge and smaller FSH surge
5. LH SURGE day 14 triggers 2 events ovulation and corpus luteum formation-secretes progesterone and estrogen
6. Negative feedback resumes corpus luteum secretes progesterone estrogen and inhibin that inhibits GnRH Lh and FSH secretion prevents further lh surges and ovulation of additional oocytes
When corpus luteum dies GnRH LH AND FSH secretion increases and new follicular phase begins

A&P (7 decks)

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