Final A&P II Flashcards
4 stages of labor
Early Labor: labor pains
Active Labor: 10cm dilation, effacement
Fetal Birth: crowning, fetal expulsion
Placental Delivery
Simple squamous epithelium
- usually allows filtration or rapid diffusion; thin permeable barrier
• serous membranes: pleurae, pericardium and peritoneum alveoli of the lungs
• endocardium of the heart endothelium of the blood vessels
Stratified squamous epithelium
-multiple layers; protects from friction and abrasion
• mouth
• oropharynx
• laryngopharynx
• esophagus
• anus
vagina
Simple cuboidal epithelium:
absorption and secretion of small solutes such as glucose and ions
nephrons: differences among cells of the proximal and distal tubules
Simple columnar epithelium
-allows absorption and secretion of large molecules- proteins, mucus
• stomach, small and large intestines
• endometrium of the uterus (uterine glands secrete uterine “milk”)
Pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium mixed with goblet cells-
(“Respiratory epithelium”)
• nasal cavity
• nasopharynx
• trachea
• bronchi
Goblet cells:
modified simple columnar cells that secrete mucus
Podocytes:
modified epithelial cells that help form the glomerular capsule of the nephron with small extensions that help in the filtration process
Blood Flow
Starting right atrium
To right ventricle
To pulmonary trunk
To lungs (pulmonary circuit)-oxygenated
Left side of the heart four pulmonary veins
Left atrium
To left ventricle
To aorta
To body (systemic circuit)
To superior vena cava (SVC) Inferior Vena Cava (IVC) coronary sinus
4 Heart Valves
Atrioventricular Valves
Semilunar Valves
Atrioventricular Valves
Right AV valve (tricuspid) prevents regurgitation of blood back into the right atrium
Left AV valve (bicuspid or mitral) prevents regurgitation of blood back in to the left atrium
Semilunar Valves separate each ventricle from the blood vessel (artery) into which it ejects
Right SL valve (pulmonary)
Left SL valve (aortic)
The AV valves are already open and the ventricles are partially filled with blood BEFORE the atria contract
TRUE
What receives oxygen-poor blood from the superior and inferior venae cavae and coronary sinus (posterior side)
Right Atrium
What receives oxygen-rich blood from the left and right pulmonary veins (two from each lung)
Left Atrium
Oxygen-rich blood returns through the?
Left and right pulmonary veins (from the lungs) and enters the LA
The right atrium receives blood from which of the following vessels
Superior Vena Cava
Inferior Vena Cava
Coronary Sinus
The atria contract when ventricles are
80% filled
Completes the filling of the ventricles
2 Circuits of Blood
REPLIES
Right Pulmonary
Left Systemic
Pulmonary Circuit (right side pump) pumps blood to the lungs
Systemic Circuit (left side pump) pumps blood to the body
Pulmonary Circulation
From body to heart to lungs
Vessels, chambers and valves as blood travels from the body to heart to lungs
The real master endocrine gland
Hypothalamus
Used to be the anterior pituitary
Testosterone
Travels in blood to other body sites, stimulates maturation of male genitalia, development of secondary sex characteristics
GnRH gonadotropin releasing hormone from hypothalamus,stimulates secretion of FSH & LH from anterior pituitary, gonads, estrogen progesterone and testosterone
Spermatogenis
What hormones provoke GnRH
Neurohormones from the hypothalamus control the secretion of anterior pituitary hormones, the anterior pituitary secretes tropic hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands to secrete their hormones-estrogen, progesterone, and testosterone
Hypothalamic Pituitary Gonadal Axis
Males
Regulated only by negative feedback
↑ GnRH leads to ↑ FSH and LH which lead to ↑ spermatogenesis and ↑ testosterone production
When sperm count and testosterone levels are sufficient, then GnRH FSH and LH secretion decrease back to normal
Hypothalamic-Pituitary Gonadal Axis
Females
Regulated by negative and positive feedback
↑ GnRH secretion from hypothalamus leads first to ↑ FSH and development of a dominant oocyte
Estrogen from oocyte stimulates proliferation of the uterine lining
High estrogen levels trigger high LH secretion which triggers ovulation and development of a corpus luteum
Progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates secretory phase in the uterus
The Uterine Cycle 3 phases
Secretion of estrogen and progesterone from the ovaries during the ovarian cycle promote the monthly changes seen in the endometrium of the uterus during the uterine (menstrual) cycle
Menstrual Phase
Proliferative Phase
Secretory Phase
Menstrual Phase
Days 1-5 functional layer of endometrium is shed, bleeding occurs
Estrogen and progesterone levels drop when corpus luteum dies. Stratum Functionale of endometrium is shed. Bleeding occurs
Proliferation Phase
Days 6-14 endometrium regrows
Estrogen from the dominant follicle stimulates endometrium to regrow.
Secretory Phase
Days 15-28 endometrium secretes nutrients and expands its blood supply to prepare for implantation
Progesterone from the corpus luteum stimulates increased blood supply.
Stimulates glands to secrete “uterine milk” to prepare for the implantation of a oocyte
Early follicular phase: GnRH stimulates FSH and LH STEP 1
A new ovarian cycle begins on Day 1 (early follicular phase)
(RECALL: Day 1 is the same in the ovarian and uterine cycles: First day of menstruation)
- GnRH secretion from the hypothalamus stimulates FSH and LH secretion from the anterior pituitary
Early and mid Follicular Phase: FSH and LH target the follicles Step 2
- FSH stimulates several follicles to grow
Granulosa cells secrete estrogens
LH stimulates thecal cells to secrete androgens which are converted into estrogens
RESULTS: Estrogen levels rise and become slightly elevated
One of the follicles is becoming dominant
Early and midfollicular phases: negative feedback inhibits FSH, LH release
Step 3
- When estrogen level is slightly elevated there is negative feedback control
Estrogen inhibits GnRH, LH, FSH secretion
Inhibin from the follicle inhibits FSH secretion
Decrease in FSH means only the dominant follicle will develop further
Prevents premature ovulation
Slightly elevated estrogen and rising inhibin levels inhibit FSH secretion
Late Follicular Phase Positive feedback stimulates LH, FSH Surges
Step 4
- Dominant follicle is now secreting a high level of estrogen
Control switches to positive feedback
High estrogen levels trigger a large LH surge and a smaller FSH surge
Ovulatory and Luteal phases: LH surge
Triggers ovulation; formation of corpus luteum
Step 5
- LH surge
Occurs around Day 14
Triggers two events:
a. Ovulation
Oocyte is released and will be drawn into the uterine tube
b. Formation of the corpus luteum:
Ruptured follicle is transformed into a corpus luteum
Luteal phase begins
Corpus luteum now secretes progesterone and estrogen and inhibin
Luteal phase: Negative Feedback inhibits LH FSH release
Step 6
- Negative feedback resumes
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone, estrogen and inhibin, which inhibit GnRH, LH and FSH secretion
Prevents further LH surges and ovulation of additional oocytes
When the corpus luteum dies, GnRH, LH and FSH secretion start to increase.
New follicular phase begins.
Corpus luteum
Develops from the ruptured follicle, secretes progesterone and estrogen
Degenerates and forms a corpus albicans (scar tissue)
Ectopic Pregnancy
Tubal, Interstitial (fundic), cervical
Implantation occurs somewhere other than the uterus
Uterus Histology
Inner surface is simple columnar epithelium
Bartholin Glands
Are analogous to the bulbourethal glands in the male (produces thick, clear mucus to lubricate spongy urethra during sexual arousal)
Penis Anatomy shaft-3 cylindrical columns of erectile tissue
Corpus Cavernosa-2 large columns on the dorsal aspect of the penis shaft
Corpus spongiosum-1 small column along the ventral aspect of the shaft that surrounds the urethra
Erectile tissue:
Spongy network of connective tissue and smooth muscle
Has open vascular caverns that fill with blood during an erection
Inhibin
Corpus luteum secreted and prohibits additional ovulations
Dartos muscle
Wrinkles scrotal skin (rugae) smooth muscle pulls scrotum close to the body
Proximal Tubule tubular secretion
PCT main site for secretion
Controls blood PH H+ secretion to HCO3- reabsorption
removing undesirable substances that have been passively reabsorbed (urea and Uric acid by “solvent drag”
Riding body of excess K+ K+ coupled with Na+ reabsorption
Regulated by aldosterone in late DCT and collecting duct
Ductus (VAS) Deferens
Male carries semen and urine
Passes through inguinal canal to pelvic cavity
Expands to form ampulla joins duct of seminal vesicle to form ejaculatory duct
3 named regions
Prostatic urethra
Membraneous urethra
Spongy urethra
Female Duct System
Uterine tubes, uterus and vagina are all part of female duct system
Uterine tubes transport the sperm to the oocyte and transport the fertilized egg to the uterus
HcG
GnRH LH FSH stay inhibited prevents further ovulation, menstruation, endometrium is maintained hCG stimulates the corpus luteum to continue to secrete progesterone, estrogen and inhibin for the first three months of gestation
Chorion (fetal part of placenta) secretes hCG
Sperm anatomy
Head has acrosomal cap: an organelle derived from Golgi bodies.
Single membrane bound acrosome contains lytic enzyme hyaluronidase to dissolve hyaluronic acid, a glue-like material which binds follicular cells around ovum.
3 phases of ejaculation
Ejaculation Phases:
Orgasm (climax): release of sperm
Resolution: muscular and psychological relaxation
Refractory (latent): period during which another orgasm cannot be achieved; can last minutes to hours; lengthens
with age
Sperm flow
Testes produce sperm (sermatogenesis), secretes testosterone
Epididymis stores sperm and the site of sperm maturation
Ductus vas deferens transports sperm to the ejaculatory duct by peristalsis
Ampulla of ductus deferens
Meet in the ejaculatory duct that carries sperm into the urethra
Urethra carries ejaculate out of the body
Site of sperm production
Seminiferous tubule
Septa divide testis into ~250 labels, each containing 1-4 seminiferous tubules(site of sperm production
Spermatogenesis and secretion of testosterone take place in the seminiferous tubules
Uterus anatomy
3 regions
Fundus
Body (corpus)
Cervix
Prostate gland
secretes milky slightly acid fluid (citrate) enzymes and prostate-specific antigen (PSA) which plays a role in sperm activation
Epididymis
Stores sperm and is site of sperm maturation
Ejaculatory duct
Carries sperm into urethra
Ductus deferens
Transports sperm to the ejaculatory duct by peristalsis
Seminal gland (Vesicles)
secrete alkaline seminal fluid which neutralizes acidity of the male urethra and vagina
Mixes with sperm to form semen, 2-5 ml are ejaculated containing 20-150 million sperm/ml
Diabetes Mellitus
Normally 100% absorbed at the PCT
Carriers reach transport maximum cannons reabsorb all glucose resulting in glucosuria (glucose loss in urine)
Polyuria (water is lost in urine as it follows glucose)
Symptoms of diabetes dehydration and extreme thirst.
Steroid and Amino Based Hormones
3 plasma components
- Erythrocytes red blood cells
- Platelets
- Leukocytes white blood cells
GLUCOSE AMINO ACIDS FATTY ACIDS
PLASMA PROTEINS GLOBULINS ALBUMIN AND FIBRINOGEN
Most abundant Cation Na+
Most abundant plasma protein is ALBUMIN (60%) functions as carrier of the other molecules, as blood buffer, and contributes to plasma osmotic pressure
Structure of Hemoglobin
hemoglobin consists of red heme pigment bound to the protein globin
Globin 4 polypeptide chains (2alpha and 2 beta) & 4 heme groups
Heme pigment bonded to each globin chain gives blood red color and central ion atom binds one O2
One O2 binds to Fe atom of each heme group
Each molecule of Hb can bind and transport up to 4 oxygen molecules
Tunica abuginea
Inner layer, fibrous capsule of the testes
Ovary
Are homologous to the testes, produce/develop the sex cells and secrete the sex hormones
Site of follicles
Hormones released by pituitary gland
Posterior Pituitary- ADH & Oxytocin
Anterior all amino based 4 tropic hormones(causes secretion of hormones from other endocrine glands)
GH growth hormone
PRL prolactin
FSH follicle-stimulating hormone (tropic)
LH luteinizing hormone (tropic)
TSH thyroid stimulating hormone (tropic)
ACTH adrenocorticotropic hormone (tropic)
Hypophyseal portal system
Hypothalamus Pituitary Adrenal Axes
Hypothalamus CRH Anterior pituitary
Secretion of gluco- and mineralo-corticosteroid hormones is stimulated by ACTH- adrenocorticotropic hormone.
ACTH is an anterior pituitary tropic hormone.
Secretion of ACTH is stimulated by CRH – corticotropin-releasing hormone.
CRH is a releasing hormone from the hypothalamus and travels in the hypophyseal portal system to the anterior pituitary.
Hypothalamic hypophyseal tract
Posterior pituitary ADH and Oxytocin
Neutrophil
Multilobed nucleus, pale red and blue cytoplasmic granules
Most numerous 50-70% of all WBCs
Also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes (PMNs)
Hydrolytic enzymes
Antimicrobial proteins
First WBCs to arrive on scene of acute bacterial infection (appendicitis, meningitis, or injury *inflammation
Attracted by chemotaxis
Very phagocytic “bacteria slayers”and also attack some fungi
First to arrive on scene
Eosinophils
Granules contain digestive enzymes
Release enzymes to digest parasitic worms that are too large to phagocytize (tapeworm, flukes, pinworms, hookworms)
May play a role in allergic reactions and asthma
May modulate the immune response
Bilobed nucleus red cytoplasmic granules
Basophils
Rarest WBCs
Granules contain histamine
Histamine: chemical mediator that is part of the inflammatory response
Vasodilates blood vessels to bring more blood to an injury site
Chemically attracts WBCs to site
Responsible for common allergy symptoms- runny nose, watery eyes, itchy red skin (hives)
We take antihistamines to combat their effect
Bilobed nucleus, purplish-black cytoplasmic granules
(Leukocytes) Granulocyte & Agranulocytes
Lymphocytes
25% of all WBCs
Mostly found in lymphoid tissue (e.g. lymph nodes, spleen)
Some circulate in blood
Have central role in immunity
Two types of lymphocytes:
T lymphocytes (T cells): act against virus-infected body cells, cancer cells
B lymphocytes (B cells): give rise to plasma cells which produce antibodies (immunoglobulin proteins)
Antibodies bind to invaders; target them for destruction
Large spherical nucleus, thin rim of pal blue cytoplasm
Monocytes
Largest of all leukocytes
During an infection, they leave circulation by diapedesis and enter the tissues
Monocytes differentiate into Macrophages, voracious phagocytes
Second to arrive on scene of infection (after neutrophils)
Defend against viruses, some intracellular bacterial parasites, chronic infections (e.g. tuberculosis)
Help activate lymphocytes in an immune response
Kidney-shaped nucleus, abundant pale blue cytoplasm
Platelets
Thrombocytes are not true cells
Have no nucleus or organelles
Are cell fragments
Function to help stop bleeding by
Forming temporary platelet plugs-seal small breaks in broken blood vessels
Helping in clot formation (coagulation)
Form from hematopoietic stem cells, hemocytoblast gives rise to megakaryoblast (mitosis without dividing cytoplasm) becomes megakarocyte
Granules form in cytoplasm-contain chemicals for clotting
Uterus Layers
Endometrium innermost inner lining where the fertilized egg implants
Stratum functionale-is shed during menstruation and retro’s in response to estrogen and progesterone
Stratum basale is not shed
Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium
Urine flow
Nephrons, pyramids, papillae, minor calyces, major calyces, renal pelvis, ureter, bladder, urethra
Cardiac Cycle
Ventricular Filling, atrial contraction-mid to late diastole
Isovolumetric contraction phase, ventricular ejection phase- ventricular systole (atria in diastole)
Isovolumetric relaxation-early diastole
Ventricular filling
Muscular arteries
In arterial system (distributing vessels) NAMED in smooth muscles
Distribute blood to body organs
Have thick tunica media with more smooth muscle
Active vasoconstriction-controls blood flow into organs
Controlled by sympathetic vasomotor nerves
Arteries 3 layers intima, media and externa strong thicker smooth muscle layer (tunica media) round lumen
Veins
Venous system small and large capacitance vessels
Intima, Media, externa and lumens (very little smooth muscle) thinner smooth muscle walls and lower pressure but greater capacity 60% of body’s blood
Stomach Cell types Gastric Pit
Parietal Cells- secrete hydrochloric acid, intrinsic factor and appetite-regulating hormone ghrelin
G cells secrete gastrin to stimulate secretion of gastric acid (HCl)
Enteroendocrine Cells secrete hormones that regulate digestion
Surface epithelium-columnar
Foveolar (mucous neck cells) secrete mucus to protect stomach lining similar to goblet cells
Chief cells secrete enzymes gastric lipase, lepton and pepsinogen
Cardio ECG waves
P wave- Atrial depolarization initiated at SA node, causes P wave, sets off atrial contraction, atrial systole
Small space after p wave and before q-impulse slows at AV node
QRS complex Ventricular depolarization and atrial repolarization (relaxing) ventricles contract, atria repolarize and relax(no separate wave seen for atrial repolarization)
Small space after qrs but before T-ventricles remain depolarized and contracted (plateau phase of AP)
T wave Ventricular repolarization (relaxing)ventricles relax
U wave Repolarization of papillary muscles or Purkinje Fibers
Respiratory air flow
Conducting zone
External nose and nasal cavity
Pharynx (naso, Oro, and laryngo-pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi; bronchioles, terminal bronchioles
4 heart chambers
4 heart valves
Great vessels of the heart
Right Ventricle (RV)
Right Atrium (RA)
Left Ventricle (LV)
Right Ventricle (RV)
Atrioventricular Valves
Right AV valve Tricuspid
Left AV Valve Bicuspid *mitral
Semilunar Valves
Right SL Valve *pulmonary
Left SL Valve * aortic
Great vessels
Superior vena cava
Inferior vena cava
Coronary sinus
Left and right pulmonary veins *2 each
Pulmonary trunk
Left and Right pulmonary arteries *1 each
Stomach Anatomy
Cardiac
Fundus
Body
Pylorus
What is happening at the PCT
Glomerular filtration
Tubular reabsorption water (aquaporins), urea(solvent drag), solutes Na+, Cl- & K+ passively reabsorbed electrochemical gradient glucose and amino acids, HCO3 (bicarbonate ion) and secretion of H+
Hotspot
Blood Flow
Sperm hotspot
Female hotspot
Development of oocyte 6 steps
Development of oocyte
Hypothalamic pituitary gonadal axis male ABP
Internal anatomy of testis
Uterine and Ovarian Cycle
Penis anatomy Hotspot
Female anatomy hotspot
Which characterizes a respiratory acidosis
pH below 7.35 and Pco2 above 45 mm Hg
Caused by the respiratory system
Low pH coupled with high Pco2 suggest the respiratory system is causing acidosis
If HCO3 above normal means HCO3- more absorbed renal system is compensating
If HCO3 is normal renal system hasn’t had time to compensate
Amount of HCO3 in blood
Indicated body’s capacity to buffer acids
Respiratory acidosis
Pathology of respiratory system leading to hypoventilation and CO2 retention
Shallow breathing due to overdose or CNS depressors
Impaired gas exchange or lung function; emphysema, cystic fibrosis, chest injuries
Respiratory Alkalosis
Due to lack of O2 or strong emotions rather than pathology
Excessive ventilation due to asthma or being in high altitude, trying to raise O2 levels at the expense of blowing CO2
Strong emotions such as pain, fear, anxiety causing hyperventilation ph above 7.45 Pco2 below 35mm Hg
Metabolic acidosis
Excessive alcohol intake ( acetic acid)
Excessive loss of HCO3– (e.g. persistent diarrhea)
Accumulation of lactic acid
Excessive ketone production in diabetic crisis (ketoacidosis)
Starvation
Renal disease (not reabsorbing HCO3- or secreting H+ adequately)
ph below 7.35 HCO3 below normal
Causes of Metabolic Alkalosis
Vomiting: loss of stomach acid (H+)
Intake of excess base (e.g., antacids) pH is above 7.45 HCO3 above normal Pco2 above normal
1 early follicular phase
2 early and midfollicular phase target follicles
3 early and midfollicular phase negative feedback
4 late follicular phase positive feedback
5 ovulatory and Luteal phase LH surge
6 Luteal phase negative feedback
GnRH stimulates FSH and LH secretion1 GnRH secretions from hypothalamus stimulates FSH and LH anterior pituitary
2 fsh stim several follicles to grow granulosa cells secrete estrogens LH stims the Al cells converted to estrogen estrogens rises and elevated one follicle dominates
3 negative feedback estrogen legates inhibits GnRH LH FSH secrete inhibin from follicle inhibits FSH secretion the decrease means the dominate follicle will develop further and prevents further premature ovulation
4. LH SURGE dominants follicle secretes high estrogen control is positive feedback high estrogen triggers large LH surge and smaller FSH surge
5. LH SURGE day 14 triggers 2 events ovulation and corpus luteum formation-secretes progesterone and estrogen
6. Negative feedback resumes corpus luteum secretes progesterone estrogen and inhibin that inhibits GnRH Lh and FSH secretion prevents further lh surges and ovulation of additional oocytes
When corpus luteum dies GnRH LH AND FSH secretion increases and new follicular phase begins
