Final Flashcards
1
Q
covalent bond
A
hydrogen and oxygen share pair of electrons
2
Q
hydrogen bond
A
slightly positive hydrogen side of one molecule is attracted to negative oxygen side of another molecule
3
Q
specific heat
A
amount of heat required to increase temperature of given unit mass of substance by 1℃
4
Q
surface tension
A
- At surface of water all molecules are pulled inward
- Water tends to form spherical droplets on most solid materials
5
Q
latent heat
A
- heat energy that causes phase transitions w/o changing temperature
- released when water vapor changes into water or water changes into ice
6
Q
Evaporation
A
water – gas
7
Q
Condensation
A
gas – water (liquid)
8
Q
Ocean water salinity
A
varies from 33 to 37‰ (or 3.3 to 3.7%) by weight
9
Q
Saturated air
A
air that contains maximum possible amount of vapor at given temperature
10
Q
Saturation vapor pressure
A
pressure exerted by vapor molecules when air is saturated w/ water vapor
11
Q
Relative humidity
A
actual amount of water vapor in air compared w/ total amount that air could contain if saturated
12
Q
Dew point
A
temperature at which saturation is reached
13
Q
Relative Humidity (%) =
A
Actual Water Vapor in Air/Water Vapor Capacity x 100%
14
Q
Atmospheric stability
A
Determining stability of air mass depends on temperature measurements
- comparison of environmental lapse rate of surrounding air, with dry adiabatic rate of rising air
- relationship of each rate describes if air is stable or unstable
15
Q
Stable air:
A
rising air is cooler than the environmental lapse rate
16
Q
Unstable air
A
rising air is warmer than the surrounding air
17
Q
Conditional instability
A
release of latent heat causes rising air to become unstable
18
Q
General circulation of the atmosphere
A
Heated air rises in tropics at ITCZ and sinks in subtropics as part of Hadley flow
19
Q
Feedbacks in the Climate System
A
Processes that alter climate changes either by amplifying or by suppressing them
20
Q
Positive feedbacks
A
growth or melting of glaciers
21
Q
Negative feedbacks
A
increased evaporation during climate warming
22
Q
valley
A
portion of terrain where drainage system is clearly established
23
Q
continental divide
A
drainage divide on continent separating drainage basins feeding into two different oceans
24
Q
infiltration rate
A
measure of volume of water passing into soil per unit area per unit time
25
porosity
amount of space between soil particles or clumps able to hold air or water
26
permeability
quality of soil or rock that allows water to move through interconnected pore spaces
27
infiltration-excess overland flow
occurs when, during rainstorm, precipitation rate exceeds soil infiltration rate
28
River discharge
volume of flow per unit time
29
River long profile
change in altitude and gradient from source to mouth of river
30
Stream load
material collected in streams
31
Bed load
sand, gravel, and larger rock fragments
32
Alluvium
stream-deposited sedimentary material
33
Flood plain
low-lying, nearly flat alluvial valley floor inundated w/ floodwaters
34
Delta
– develops when river enters into quiet water of lake or ocean and thus slows down
- Usually triangular
35
Fluvial floods
rivers overtop banks and spill onto surrounding
36
Reservoir floods
results of dam failures
37
Flood recurrence interval
average number of years between floods of certain size
38
“100-year flood”
flood having 100-year recurrence interval
| - 1% chance of flood in any single year
39
zone of aeration
mix of solids, water, and air
40
gaining streams
rivers gain water from groundwater
41
losing streams
ephemeral streams lose water to groundwater
42
Aquifers
moderately to highly permeable rocks that water can move through
43
Salinity
total quantity of dissolved inorganic solids in water
44
Oxidation state of element is controlled by what environmental factors?
water pH and redox potential
45
95% of dissolved inorganic matter in surface water:
- cations of Ca, Mg, Na, K
- anions of bicarbonate HCO3, sulfate SO4, chloride Clˉ
- silica: silicon oxide, occurs as Si(OH)4
46
artesian water
- groundwater confined under pressure
| - may rise in a well and flow at the surface w/o pumping
47
Water that is not found in oceans accounts for about how much of the world's total water?
3%
48
Water in which major reservoir has the shortest residence time?
atmosphere
49
Water in which major reservoir has the longest residence time?
ocean
50
Dry adiabatic lapse rate
cooling of air in rising parcel at rate of 10℃ per each 1,000 meters
51
Deforestation is an anthropogenic process of tree removal which currently primarily affects
the Amazon rainforest
52
What effect do mountain ranges have on the distribution of precipitation?
Precipitation is enhanced on windward side and reduced on leeward side
53
Which of the following has the highest average albedo?
Ocean water covered w/ sea ice
54
Negative earth climate system feedbacks always
suppress initial climate changes
55
What is something that causes relative global sea level to rise?
Thermal expansion of water molecules
56
Water vapor descriptions
- Odorless
- Tasteless
- Energy-rich
- A small fraction of the atmosphere’s volume
57
Air in lower atmosphere is mixture of gases with 21% of mixture being
oxygen
58
Infrared energy is mainly absorbed in greenhouse effect by which 2 gases?
water vapor and carbon dioxide
59
Rivers downcutting into a land surface, in the absence of other forces, usually tend to erode a
V-shaped form
60
In arid climates, most small streams are
ephemeral
61
Force of ____, in conjunction w/ wind, is cause of most waves
friction
62
Photosynthesis converts carbon dioxide and ___ to carbohydrates in presence of light
water
63
Tsunami is caused by rapid ____of ocean water due to earthquake or volcanic eruption on ocean floor
displacement
64
When climate warms, ____increases by 1-3% per each 1℃ warming
evaporation
65
Compare and contrast water use in low- and middle-income countries vs high-income countries
- Agricultural use > 80% in low/middle income
| - High income – use more for various industrial processes
66
What is the salinity of the Red Sea water (in 0/00) if 1 kilogram of water in the Red Sea contains 40 grams of dissolved salts? Is the Red Sea water salinity above or below average? Why?
- 40 0/00
- Higher than average
- Very high evaporation rate
67
What kind of feedback does vegetation provide to increased precipitation? Explain
- Positive feedback
- When climate cools, forest w/ low albedo is replaced by tundra w/ high albedo – this is for temperature.
- When climate becomes more humid, forest w/ high transpiration rate replaces grassland w/ low transpiration rate => higher evaporation, more clouds, more rain
68
water pH
– indicates concentration of hydrogen ion in solution
* measured as negative ten-base logarithm
* pH = – log10 [H+]
- One unit pH change = 10-fold change in (H) ion concentration
- pH for surface water ranges from 4 to 9
69
TDS (total dissolved solids)
sum of all dissolved solutes plus silica SiO2 in water
- In rainwater < 20 mg/L
- In rivers 50 – 1000 mg/L
- “Mineral water” > 250 mg/L
70
80% of dissolved load in rivers: four solutes
- calcium Ca
- bicarbonate HCO3
- sulfate SO4
- silica SiO2
71
chemical weathering
- Weathering – mechanical disintegration
and/or chemical decomposition at the lithosphere-atmosphere boundary
- Chemical weathering: 80% of all dissolved matter
- Granite and basalt – the most common igneous rocks containing various silicate minerals
- TDS in catchments draining sedimentary rocks are five times greater than in igneous rock catchments
72
Seasonal fluctuations of dissolved oxygen
- In summer, base cations (Ca, Mg) prevail; higher alkalinity
o Groundwater dominates stream flow
- In winter, more acidic soil water and surface runoff dominate
73
Rainwater chemistry
- <20 mg/L of TDS
- Dissolved CO2 produces H ion
o acidity increases (i.e. pH falls below neutral)
74
hard water
dissolved cations of Ca and Mg (limestones, dolomites)
| - “scum line” in bathtubs and kettles; pipe blockage
75
soft water
in silicate rocks (sandstones and igneous rocks)
| - Major metal ions are Na, K, Mg, Ca in low concentrations
76
Fund pollutants
pollutants for which environment has some absorptive capacity (Ex: carbon dioxide)
77
Point-source pollution
discharged into surface water at specific location through drainage pipe or ditch
- Primary point sources are industries and municipalities
- Point sources are relatively easy to monitor and predict
78
Non-point-source pollution
runoff that comes from various sources and includes agricultural and urban runoff
- Nonpoint sources are much more difficult to control due to unpredictability and uncertainty of sources
79
cultural eutrophication
accumulation of nitrogen and phosphorous as a result of agricultural runoff and industrial activities
- Nitrate NO3 most common, in river may exceed 10 mg/L
- Orthophosphate PO4 soluble and bioavailable to aquatic life
80
Mercury attached to particles settle onto sediments
- diffuses into water column
- buried by other sediments
- methylated.
Methylmercury can then enter the food chain
81
thermal pollution
results from injection of heat into watercourse, usually in form of used industrial water
82
heavy metals
lead, cadmium, mercury
| - bio-accumulate in food chains and become persistent pollutants
83
acid mine drainage chemistry
If infiltrating water is rich in O2:
- Iron (ii) oxidizes to iron (III) and precipitates as hydroxide
- If there is no carbonate dissolution to neutralize acidity, pH can fall <4
84
acid rain
- atmospheric deposition of acidic substances, such as SO2 and NO2
- when sulfur is release into atmosphere, it combines w/ moisture in chemical reaction to make acid rain
85
water acidification
high acidity results in increased solubility of heavy metals (Al, Mn, Pb, Cd, Zn, As)
- at pH <5, Al (aluminum) becomes soluble and leaches into aquatic systems from soils
- fish osmoregulation (ability to control flow of water, salts, and gases in and out) is comprised at Al concentrations
86
salt water intrusion
saline intrusion b/c of depletion of groundwater reserves in coastal areas
87
The Water Quality Act of 1965
- established ambient water quality standards for interstate watercourses
- states required to file implementation plans
88
The Clean Water Act, 1972
- primary Federal Law that regulates water pollution in US
- amended in 1972 and then again in 1977
- does not cover groundwater contamination
89
Potable water treatment
- removing solids (screening, coagulation, filtration, disinfection)
- membrane treatment
- desalination
90
water desalination
- process whereby salt and dissolved solids are removed from water, particularly seawater
- often undertaken to allow otherwise unsuitable water sources to be used for domestic purposes
91
membrane treatment
- Various size of pores for a variety of contaminants
- Made of synthetic organic polymers
* used as flat sheets or tubular arrangements
92
Net primary productivity distribution in aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems
- Highest on land in tropics due to high insolation and precipitation; diminishes poleward and especially in extremely arid or cold areas
- In oceans, productivity is influenced by nutrient content of waters and is highest near areas of upwelling
93
Autotrophs
producers/plants; fix carbon through photosynthesis
94
Heterotrophs
- primary consumers: plant-eating animals called herbivores
- secondary consumers: herbivores become food for other animals known as carnivores or predators
- omnivores: animals that eat both plants and animals
95
Oligotrophic lakes
very low in nutrients
96
Littoral zone
at the coast; abundant in sunlight
97
Benthic zone
- at bottom of lake, transition between water body and sediment
- food web based around decomposition instead of photosynthesis
98
Aquatic ecosystem services
- regulating
- supporting
- provisional
- cultural services
99
effects of high dams
- Blocking migratory fish species from spawning and feeding sites
- Disrupting transport of sediment along river (lower groundwater level, dam sedimentation)
- Changes in water temperature and quality
- Decomposition of organic matter causing fish kills
- Disturbing natural fluctuations of water flow (seasonal floodplains are especially affected)
100
Urban stream syndrome:
- Hydrological change (reduced base flow and increased peak flow)
- Modified thermal regime (change in shading/exposure)
- Runoff from paved areas
- Enhanced nutrients and contaminants
- Transformed channel morphology
* Reduction of biodiversity
101
Invasive species
- plant/animal species not native to specific location
| - has tendency to spread to degree that can cause damage to environment
102
Development of aquaculture
May benefit developing economies, but may result in:
- Increased amount of organic matter spilled into waterways (aquafeed)
- Disappearance of tropical mangroves
103
Water-Related Hazards
- Chemical
- Physical
- Biological
104
The origin of public health
- Sanitary movement and science of epidemiology emerged in mid-1800s (after industrial revolution)
- Miasma theory - linked foul smells and stagnant air w/ cause of disease
- Germ theory - that presence and actions of microorganisms in body are cause of many diseases
105
Mortality Distribution by Cause of Death
- Group I Communicable diseases (infections) CD
- Group II Non-communicable diseases (cardiovascular, diabetes, etc) NCD
- Group III Injuries (external causes of death)
106
Water-borne diseases
infections spread by water
- Cholera
- E-coli
107
cholera
- water-borne disease caused by bacterium endemic to tropical regions and found in shellfish and plankton.
- Usually transmitted through contaminated water due to poor sanitation
108
Water-carried diseases
infections acquired through ingestion of or being close to contaminated water
- Legionnaires’ disease - Bacteria that thrive in warm aquatic environments
109
Water-washed diseases
infections spread by lack of water and lack of personal hygiene
- Leprosy
- Trachoma
110
trachoma
bacterial eye infection that can result in complete blindness. Most important preventive measure in Sub-Saharan Africa is to promote face-washing practices in children.
111
Water-based diseases
worm infections spread aquatic invertebrates
| - Schistosomiasis – (snail fever) caused by parasitic flatworms
112
Water-vector diseases
infections spread by insects that require water for their life cycle
- Malaria
- Zika
- yellow fever
- river blindness
- sleeping sickness
113
malaria
water-vector disease caused by parasitic protozoans and most commonly transmitted by infected female Anopheles mosquito
114
arsenic poisoning
• Contaminated deep tube-wells
| - Symptoms: skin lesions, dark spots on limbs, swollen limbs and loss of feeling in hands and feet
115
radon contamination
- Radon Rn – radioactive gas - occurs b/c of radioactive decay of uranium in granite and shale rocks
- Continuously produced by radioactive decay of 226Ra present in rocks (produced by radioactive decay of U and Th)
- According to EPA, 2nd leading cause of lung cancer after smoking
116
Saltwater intrusions
- Saltwater can intrude low-lying coastal areas where agriculture is developed due to sea level rise
- Saltwater moves into freshwater aquifers in coastal areas being pushed into aquifers due to groundwater overdraft
117
algal bloom neurotoxins
Cyanobacteria produce microcystin toxin
118
Agent Orange
- chemical can damage genes resulting in deformities in children
- environmental damage in Vietnam: ~ 31,000 km2 (11,969 mi2) of forest defoliated
119
dioxin
toxic (cancerogenic) organic compound - byproduct of industrial processes
120
heavy metal contamination
Heavy metals (lead, chromium) are neurotoxins and carcinogens
- Cr – industrial effluent (esp., dye works)
* Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) in drinking water 0.1 mg/L
- Pb – used in water pipes
* banned in 1970 in Europe, in 1986 in the U.S.
121
EDCs – endocrine disrupting compounds
chemicals that can mimic hormones, inhibit action of hormones, or alter regulatory effects of endocrine system
122
Tropical cyclones
most hazardous events are coastal flooding, high waves, and heavy rain
123
natural hazard vulnerability
indicator of how social or ecological system is susceptible to various stressors
- Climate change
- Natural hazards
- Urbanization
- Population growth
- Economic reforms
124
Effects of globalization
Globalization ----- industrialization ------- urbanization ------- Slum population growth -------drinking water deficit
125
Water draining from the abandoned copper mine is
acidic
126
Water in the Mediterranean Sea is
alkaline
127
Unpolluted rainwater is
slightly acidic
128
Surface and ground water in the Sierra Nevada, emerging w/i granite-rock catchments and aquifers, is considered
soft water
129
Methane biogas can be produced during the treatment of biodegradable wastewater and sewage in the process of
anaerobic digestion
130
Disability Adjusted Lie Years (DALY) is the World Health Organization’s measure of
cumulative number of years lost due to disability or early death
131
Preventable diseases (such as infections and injuries) comprise around ____of the global disease burden, according to the WHO.
50%
132
Arsenic contamination of water wells in Bangladesh is the result of
dissolution of arsenic-rich oxides in the anoxic waterlogged conditions
133
In 1972, a movie was made about a cruise ship that was overturned by a tsunami while in the open sea. Why is this plot is not valid?
tsunami does not form high waves while in the open sea.
134
In 2002, the Mono Lake ___ was measured at 78 g/L and is expected to stabilize at an average 69 g/L as the lake replenishes over the next decades.
salinity
135
High ___ of Mono Lake w/ pH=10 of lake water means that no fish are native to lake.
alkalinity
136
The whole food chain of Mono Lake is based on the high population of single-celled planktonic algae present in the
photic zone of the lake.
137
The Mono Lake is famous for the Mono Lake brine shrimp that are endemic to the lake. The brine shrimp feed on microscopic
algae
138
Alkali flies that live along shores of Mono Lake are important source of ___ for migratory and nesting birds.
food
139
Explain where and why the highest concentrations of methylmercury (over 1 ppm) are observed in fish tissue in California’s rivers and reservoirs
- Largest concentrations of mercury are found in and below western sierra where mercury was mined and used for amalgamation of gold in hydraulic mining
- Another area of higher mercury concentrations is in southern CA probably correlated w/ oil extraction or landfills
140
What is the major difference in regional distribution of deaths by group of causes: Group I – infectious diseases and Group II – non-communicable between Africa and “more developed regions” (including the US and Europe)? How can water be one of the reasons for this regional difference in cause of death?
- ~60% of deaths in Africa are caused by group I communicable diseases. In high income economies, CD comprise ~5% of deaths
- Many infections are spread by water that is not properly cleaned or due to unsanitary conditions
- Absence of water safety regulations and water infrastructure is more common in low income economies
141
Photic zone
where light penetrates
142
Of three aquatic ecosystems (marine, surface waters, and wetland), the wetland ecosystem appears to be the most productive. Explain which factors may account for higher productivity of wetlands over the other two aquatic ecosystems.
- Wetlands are productive b/c there is sufficient amount of water and light (being by the definition aquatic ecosystems in shallow water).
- Nutrients are supplied by creeks – especially in tidal marshes.
143
Explain WHY low- and middle-income economies are more vulnerable to water-related hazards (such as typhoons, tsunamis, chemical pollution, etc.) though these events can happen anywhere in the world
Natural hazards occur everywhere but response to disasters is different depending on governmental efficiency, developed infrastructure, and amount of resources. That leaves low income economies more vulnerable.
144
Regulating services
flow regulation (wetlands, groundwater, floodplains); sediment transport
145
most common water price rate structures:
uniform volumetric, decreasing block, increasing block
146
uniform volumetric
uniform unit price, but total amount of water used is metered
147
decreasing block
unit price of water goes down as volume of used water goes up
148
increasing block
- unit price of water increases w/ increasing use
- most efficient
- over 70% of cities use this price structure
149
Three ways to allocate water among different stakeholders
user-based allocation
agency allocation model
market allocation model
150
user-based allocation
ex. an irrigation Co-operative in part of a watershed in the west US ranchers might jointly form an association and grant it the authority to make decisions on allocation to individual members of the association
151
agency allocation model
a state or federal agency is charged with making allocation decisions.
152
market allocation model
water is priced according to a market economy, and those who can afford to get more.
153
Transboundary water conflict
* Over 200 water bodies are shared by two or more countries
Various causes for conflict:
- Consumptive use (California V Arizona, Inyo County vs LA)
- Pollution (the Rheine River)
- Water distribution and availability (the Middle East)
- Hydro-politics
154
Blue water
withdrawals from rivers, lakes, groundwater
155
Green water
rainwater + water in soils and plants
156
Grey water
water needed to dilute pollution
157
California Water Budget
- 200 million acre-feet of water falls each year as precipitation in California (23 inches/yr)
- 1 acre-foot is equal to approx. 1 or 2 average households’ annual use (326,000 gallons)
- Storage: snow pack, reservoirs, groundwater
- 75% lost for evapotranspiration
- Other losses: irrigation and rerouting, surface runoff
- 80% is used by agriculture
158
interfluve
higher land above valley, separating adjacent valleys
159
Downcutting is usually most prominent along the
upper part of a stream valley
160
Dendritic drainage pattern
- most common pattern
- Treelike, branching pattern consisting of random merging streams
- Tributaries join larger streams irregularly
- Underlying structure does not control the drainage pattern, as rocks are more or less equally resistant to erosion
161
radial drainage pattern
stream descends from a concentric uplift, like an isolated volcano
162
rectangular drainage pattern
develop where rocks have two directions of jointing at right angles
- joints tend to be eroded more easily
- streams can develop along lower-lying eroded joints
163
trellised drainage pattern
develops as response to underlying structural control as alternating bands of tilted hard and soft rock layers
• long, parallel streams linked by short, right-angled segments
• common in folded mountains (e.g. the Appalachians)
164
parallel drainage pattern
* tend to occur in areas w/ very steep slopes
| * few branching tributaries and straight river channels
165
Centripetal drainage pattern
stream converges into a basin, opposite of radial
166
Deranged drainage pattern:
- Occur in areas with very irregular topography and many low points where lakes form
- Common in the regions affected by the Pleistocene glaciation (Canada, Northern Europe)
167
Types of river regime
A. Stable regime in equatorial regions or in coastal areas, w/ relatively even distribution of seasonal precipitation
B. Snow and ice melt dominate – summer peak (temperate climates)
C. Occasional but intense rainfall in arid and semi-arid regions
D. Regions w/ Mediterranean climate – dry summer, wet winter
168
acid rain acidity
below pH of 4
169
sea water pH
8
