Final Flashcards
What differences in a Female Pelvis allow for childbearing
Oval shape, iliac fossa is shallower, sacrum is broad, pelvis is light
What joint (and type) makes up the pelvis
Pubic Symphysis (amphiarthrotic cartilsginous symphysis joint)
What type of joint is the Sacroiliac joint
Syndesmosis (slightly movable). Sacrum and ilium of pelvic bone
The anterior ligaments of the hip joint
Pubofemoral ligament & Iliofemoral ligament
When are the pubofemoral and the Iliofemoral ligament the tightest
When standing up straight or extension of torso backwards
What is the posterior ligament of the hip joint
Ischiofemoral ligament
What movement does the ischiofemoral ligament prevent?
Excess abduction and extension
Function of the Ligament of the Head of the Femur
Joint Stabilization
Muscles that move the Thigh ONLY
Iliopsoas muscle, lateral rotators, adductor muscle group, gluteal group, tensor fasciae latae
Movement of Iliopsoas muscle group
Flexor of thigh (made up of Psoas major and iliacus muscle)
Function of Lateral Rotator Group
Laterally rotates the femur (abduction) Eg. When crossing leg onto knee
Muscles that make up the Lateral Rotator group
Piriformis, obturator internus, obturator externus
Function of Adductor Muscle group
Adduct femur @ hip joint
Muscles of the adductor muscle group
Adductor magnus, brevis, longus & Pectineus & Gracilis
Function of the gluteus medius & minimus
abduction & medial rotation @ hip joint
Muscles of the gluteal group
Gluteus maximus, medius and minimus
Function of Gluteus maximus
Extension, lateral rotation & abduction
What thigh adductor muscle also flexes leg at Knee
Gracilis muscle
Function of tensor fasciae latae (lateral side of thigh)
hip flexion, medial rotation & abduction
What type of joint is the knee joint
Modified hinge joint
Why is the knee joint not very stable?
It hasn’t the largest ROM of all joints
Other joint in knee
Patellofemoral joint, plane joint
Where is the articular capsule
Extends from distal femur to proximal tibia
Components of articular capsule
Medial & lateral menisci, fat pads, ligaments, muscles/tendons
Collateral ligaments of knee & function
Fibular Collateral & Tibial collateral ligament. Give side to side stability
When are the collateral ligaments of the knee the tightest?
When the leg is in full extension, standing up
What do the collateral ligaments prevent
Stops tibia from moving too far medially or laterally
The 2 cruciate ligaments of knee
Anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) & Posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)
ACL -location and function
Anterior surface of tibia, prevents knee from moving too far forward
PCL -location and function
Posterior surface of tibia, prevents knee from moving backwards
Is ACL or PCL more commonly injured?
ACL because spend more time standing in flexion, and impact comes from outside (PCL injury is usually when knee is in flexion, sitting down in car)
The 3 hamstring muscles that move both the thigh at hip and leg at knee
Biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus
Movements of biceps femoris
Extension & lateral rotation of thigh at hip, flexion of leg at knee
Movements of semimembranosus
Extension & medial rotation of thigh at hip, flexion of leg at knee
Movements of semitendinosus
Extension & medial rotation of thigh at hip, flexion of leg at knee
Insertion of biceps femoris
Lateral tibial condyle
Insertion of semimembranosus and semitendinosus
Medial tibial condyle
Other flexors of knee
Sartorius, Gracilis, Popliteus
Why do semimembranosus and semitendinosus have different movements than biceps femoris
Different insertion points - biceps femoris inserts on lateral condyle of tibia
Medial thigh muscle that moves thigh at hip & leg at knee
Gracilis
Movements of gracilis muscle
Adduction & medial rotation of thigh at hip, flexion & medial rotation of leg at knee
What are the 2 anterior (quad) thigh muscles that move the thigh at hip and leg at knee
Rectus femoris & sartorius
Movements of the rectus femoris
Flexion of thigh @ hip & extension of leg @ knee
Movements of Sartorius (originates at iliac spine and inserts into patellar tendon)
Flexion, abduction, lateral rotation of thigh at hip & flexion of leg at knee
4 Muscles that act on the knee only
Rectus femoris, vastus medialis, vastus intermedius, vastus lateralis
Common origin and insertion point of quadriceps muscle
greater trochanter of femur and inserts into patellar tendon
3 tibiofibular joints
Proximal tibiofibular joint, interosseous membrane (middle joint) and distal tibiofibular joint
What is the Talocrural joint (ankle joint) composed of
Tibia, fibula and talus joints
key ligaments of the ankle
Tibiofibular ligaments, lateral ligaments and deltoid ligaments
3 lateral ligaments of ankle
anterior talofibular, posterior talofibular and calcaneofibular ligament
Function of tibiofibular ligaments
stabilize ankle, limits external rotation of foot & distal fibular motion on the tibia
Function of lateral ligaments
Limits anterior and posterior displacement of talus & resists inversion
Function of deltoid ligament of ankle
reinforce ankle joint, help resist eversion
2 large calf muscles (plantar flexors)
Gastrocnemius and soleus muscle
2 types of nervous tissue
Neurons and Neuroglia
Functions of neurons
Transferring, conducting and processing of info
Functions of neuroglia
supporting cells, protect the neuron, phagocytic role
Role of CNS
includes all nervous tissue of brain and spinal cord. processing and coordinating sensory input and sends out motor output
Role of PNS
Associated with nervous tissue outside the CNS. Provides sensory info to the CNS and carries motor commands away from the CNS
What does the afferent division of the PNS do
Receptors that then send info to the CNS
What does the efferent division of the PNS do
sends info from CNS to muscles or glands effectors
4 types of CNS neuroglia (supporting cells)
Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells
2 types of PNS neuroglia
Satellite cells and schwann cells
Role of Astrocytes in CNS
- maintain blood-brain barrier
- structural support
- regulate ion, nutrient and dissolved gas [ ]’s
- absorb and recycle neurotransmitters
- form scar tissue after injury
Role of Oligodendrocytes in CNS
- *Myelinate CNS axons
- provide structural framework
Role of Microglia in CNS
-remove cell debris, wastes and pathogens by phagocytosis
Role of Ependymal cells in CNS
- line ventricles (brain) and central canal (spinal cord)
- assist in producing, circulating and monitoring cerebrospinal fluid
Role of Satellite cells in PNS
- surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia
- regulate 02, CO2, nutrient and neurotransmitter levels around neurons in ganglia
Role of Schwann cells in PNS
- *myelinate peripheral axons
- surround all axons in PNS
- participate in repair process after injury
How are Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells similar
They both myelinate axons
The 2 types of synapses
Chemical synapse and electrical synapse
2 types of reflexes
Monosynaptic and polysynaptic
What is a monosynaptic reflex
Simple reflex that involves transmission of info from sensory neuron to appropriate motor neuron across a single synapse in spinal cord
**doesn’t go to higher brain centre
3 layers of meninges of the spinal cord (superficial to deepest)
Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater
What is grey matter in the brain and spinal cord composed of
Neural cell bodies, axon terminals, dendrites, nerve synapses
What is white matter in the brain and spinal cord composed of
bundles of axons (which are coated with myelin). White matter conducts, processes and sends nerve signals up and down the spinal cord
What travels thru the dorsal root of the spinal cord
Sensory info, ascending nerve signals
What travels thru the ventral root of the spinal cord
Motor info, descending
4 nerve plexuses
Cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral
Cervical plexus -which spinal nerves and what do they innervate
Spinal nerves C1-C4 and some of C5. Innervate the head, neck and chest
Brachial plexus - which spinal nerves and what do they innervate
Spinal nerves C5 -T1. Innervate the pectoral girdle and upper limbs
Lumbar plexus - which spinal nerves and what do they innervate
Spinal nerves T12-L5. Innervate the pelvic girdle and lower limbs.
Sacral plexus - which spinal nerves and what do they innervate
Spinal nerves L4-S4. Innervate the pelvic girdle and lower limbs
Dorsal root
sensory neurons (afferent, ascending). Tract names will start with “spino-“
Ventral root
motor neurons (efferent, descending). Tract names will end with “-spinal”
Routes of sensory info to the spinal cord
Dorsal ramus, ventral ramus and rami communicates
Somatic sensations (which types of receptors)
- arise from the skin
- touch, pressure, cold pain
- exteroreceptors, proprioceptors
Visceral sensations (which types of receptors)
- from internal organs, body wall, limbs, back
- interoreceptors
3 major ascending sensory tracts in spinal cord
Posterior column, spinocerebellar tracts, spinothalamic tracts
Which tracts have 1st, 2nd and 3rd order neurons
Posterior column tract and the spinothalamic tract
What are dermatomes
Specific regions of the skin that spinal nerves supply
Function of the hypothalamus
- Monitors cerebral activities and coordinates autonomic functions
- Coordinates function of endocrine system by inhibiting or stimulating endocrine cells within pituitary gland
- sets appetite, thirst, sex drive, behaviors, emotional status
What is the autonomic nervous system
Responsible for bodily functions not under conscious control
Eg. breathing, heart, digesting
3 divisions of the Autonomic NS
Sympathetic, parasympathetic and enteric division
Sympathetic NS
-“fight or flight”
Eg. want to dilate blood vessels going to muscles, constrict ones going to areas don’t need
3 locations that preganglionic neurons can synapse in Sympathetic NS
- Sympathetic chain ganglia
- Collateral ganglia
- Adrenal medulla
Route of preganglionic neuron synapsing in sympathetic chain ganglia
ventral root - spinal nerve - white ramus (myelinated) - sympathetic chain ganglia - SYNAPSE - postganglionic neuron exits thru grey ramus (unmyelinated) - target organ
Function of cerebrum
left and right hemispheres. Interprets touch, vision, hearing, speech, emotions, learning
Diencephalon
composed of the right and left thalamus, hypothalamus and cerebellum
-relays sensory info to brain regions
Thalamus
large mass of grey matter, directs signals to different areas of the brain
Hypothalamus
controls metabolic processes such as releasing hormones, regulating body temp, etc.
Mesencephalon/Midbrain
Part of brain stem, associated with vision, hearing, motor control, sleep, arousal and temp regulation
Pons
in upper part of brain stem, involved in controlling breathing, communication b/w different parts of the brain and hearing, taste, balance
Medulla oblongata
controls autonomic functions such as breathing, digestion, heart, swallowing, sneezing
Cerebellum
receives info from the sensory systems and spinal cord and regulates voluntary motor movements
Eg. posture, balance, coordination, speech
How is the brain protected, nourished and supported?
bones of skull, cranial meninges (extra cushioning, absorb force), suspended in cerebrospinal fluid, blood brain barrier, rich blood supply
Phase 1 of Menstrual cycle
Menstrual phase
- functional layer destroyed b/c low E/P
- which stimulates LH and FSH to increase and follicle development
Phase 2 of menstrual cycle
Proliferation phase
-repair and regeneration of functional layer b/c high E
Phase 3 of menstrual cycle
Secretory phase
- secretion by uterine glands
- high P and low E
3 layers of uterine wall
- Endometrium (glandular, functional and basal layer)
- Myometrium- smooth muscle
- Perimetrium - incomplete serial layer
Functions of uterus
- protection & nutrition for embryo
- means of removing the embryo’s waste
Structure of uterus
- stabilized by 3 ligaments
- skeletal muscle & fasciae from pelvic floor stabilize
Function of fallopian tubes
nourishes oocyte and transports it to uterus
Structure of fallopian tubes
mucus membrane consisting of ciliated and non ciliated simple columnar & smooth muscle
What hormone triggers ovulation
Follicle stimulating hormone
Bulbourethral gland (Cowper’s gland)
-add fluids to semen (alkaline mucus) that neutralizes the ejaculate bc of urinary acids in urethra
Function of Prostate
produces prostatic fluid which prevents sperm from coagulating in vagina and nourishes
Seminal glands
Just before prostate. Adds to majority of semen, activates sperm and provides nutrients
What is ejaculation/seminal fluid composed of
- secretions from different glands
- sperm
- enzymes
Structure of vas deferens
- Smooth muscle lined with ET
- begins at tail of epididymis and ascends into abdominal cavity
Structure of epididymis
Lined with pseudostratified columnar ET w/ long cilia
Functions of epididymis
- recycles damaged sperm
- stores & matures sperm
- fertilize when exposed to female reproductive
2 Key cells of Seminiferous tubules
1) leydig cells
2) Nurse cells
Function of Seminiferous tubules
- site of sperm production
- gradually turn into sperm
- enter lumen of ST
- go to epididymis last stage
Leydig cells
- androgen production (testosterone)
- stimulated by LH
Nurse cells
- stimulated by T and FSH to promote sperm production
- secretes inhibin & androgen binding protein
Testes
- produces sperm
- at development, testes are up near kidneys and then all come down to scrotum
What is the nephron composed of
Renal corpuscle and renal tubule
Where is the nephron’s parts located in the kidney
Cortex (outer): renal corpuscle, proximal conv, and distal convoluted
Medulla: Loop of Henle and collecting ducts
3 functions of Nephron
1) Filtration - in renal corpuscle. H2O and solutes from blood to renal tubule. Driven by BP in glomerulus
2) Reabsorption - in renal tubule. H2O and solutes from tubule go back into plasma
3) Secretion- in renal tubules. Of additional substances into blood and renal tubules
Pathway of blood filtrate in kidney
Renal corpuscle - proximal convoluted tubule - loop of Henle - distal convoluted tubule - connecting tubules - collecting duct - papillary duct
The 3 layers of CT in the kidney
1) Fibrous capsule - innermost, maintains shape & protection
2) Perinephric fat - adipose tissue
3) Renal fasciae - outermost, anchors kidney
Flow of Blood through and out kidneys
Renal artery - segmental arteries - interlobar arteries - arcuate arteries - cortical radiate arteries - afferent arterioles - Glomerulus - efferent arteriole - peritubular capillaries - venules - cortical radiate veins - arcuate veins - interlobar veins - renal vein
Functions of urinary system
- eliminates wastes from body
- regulates blood volume & pressure
- controls levels of electrolytes and metabolites
Functions of liver
- regulates metabolism (absorbs fat soluble vits, removes wastes)
- removes old and damaged RBCs from blood
- hepatocytes (liver cells) produce and secrete bile into Duodenum
Stellate macrophages
Kupffer cells, in sinusoids of liver, engulf pathogens, debris and damaged blood cells
Liver sinusoids
Vascular channels in liver that receive blood from terminal branches and bring to central veins
Hepatic portal vein
-contains partially deoxygenated blood (contains nutrients absorbed from SI) and liver releases nutrients into central vein - hepatic vein - inferior vena cava
Function of gall bladder
-stores and concentrates bile which emulsifies fat
Function of pancreas
- simple cuboidal epithelia
- produce pancreatic juices (H2O, ions, dig enzymes)
- Lipases, proteases, carbohydrases, nucleases
Functions of LI
- reabsorption of H2O
- absorption of vitamins produced by housed bacteria
- storage of fecal matter before defecation
LI vs SI
- larger diameter, thinner walls, no villi
- more goblet cells (protectives walls of tracts)
- lamina propria and submucosa (contain large lymphoid nodules)
- muscular layer is only teniae coli
Lamina propria
loose areolar CT that lies below epithelial
Ileocecal valve
sphincter muscle that separates ileum and cecum (SI and LI)
Functions of digestive system
ingestion, secretion, compaction, defecation
4 major layers of digestive system
1) Mucosa (inner lining of gut)
2) Submucosa
3) Muscular layer
4) Serosa (most deep)
What type of epithelium are gastric pits, intestinal villi and goblet cells
Simple columnar
Function of SI
- digestion
- absorption of food
- production of gastro hormones
Function of lacteals in SI
Absorb digested fat, part of lymphatic
Plicae circulares in SI
large circular folds, increase SA
What does an increase in LH in males do
Stimulates Leydig cells to produce testosterone
What does an increase in LH do in females
triggers ovulation - follicular cells to produce estrogens
-develops corpus luteum which produces progesterone and relaxin
What do alpha cells in pancreas produce
produce glucagon
-stimulates glucogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
What do beta cells in pancreas produce
produce insulin
-stimulates uptake of BG by cells, glycolysis and protein synthesis
What are the 4 cells that the pancreas contains
alpha, beta, delta and F cells
What do delta cells produce in the pancreas
Produce somatostatin
- inhibits glucagon and insulin
- slows rate of absorption in SI
What do F cells in pancreas do
Pancreatic polypeptide
-inhibits gallbladder contractions
What hormones does the adrenal medulla secrete
Epinephrine and norepinephrine which initiate fight or flight
What do the adrenal glands secrete
hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) and steroids like aldersterone and cortisol
-they’re on top of kidneys
Chromaffin cells
found in medulla of adrenal glands
-response to stress, monitor CO2, O2, and BP
3 layers of adrenal cortex
1) zona glomerulosa- release aldersterone to kidney for retention of Na and H2O
2) zona fasciculate - regulate glucose metabolism, increase protein, CHO breakdown
3) zona reticularis - secrete androgens
parathyroid glands
- located on posterior of thyroid gland
- produce parathyroid hormone bc low blood Ca levels
- reduces urinary excretion of Ca and increases intestinal absorption
- stimulates osteoclasts and inhibits osteoblasts
When does calcitonin get released by thyroid
In response to high Ca levels
- *inhibits osteoclasts and stimulates osteoblasts (bone forming)
- decreases intestine absorption and increases excretion
When does parathyroid hormone get released by parathyroid glands
In response to low Ca levels
What are the 2 main thyroid hormones
T3 and T4
What happens when thyroid hormone levels drop too low
The hypothalamus releases Thyrotropsin-releasing hormone (TRH)
which stimulates the pituitary gland to release Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH)
-stimulates thyroid to release thyroid hormones (T3, T4)
Reflexes that regulate ventilation
- mechanoreceptors (respond to changes in lung volume or BP)
- chemoreceptors (changes in pressures of CO2, O2 and pH)
- protective reflexes (injury, irritation)
Muscles that help with inhalation
Sternocleidomastoid, scalenes (up neck), pectoralis minor and serratus anterior
Muscles that help with exhaling
Internal intercostals, rectus abdominis, internal obliques
In parasympathetic NS where do preganglionic neurons synapse with postganglionic
1) Near the target organ (terminal)
2) Within target organ (intramural)
What are the 3 cranial meninges
Dura mater, arachnoid, pia mater
Function of blood brain barrier
-allows a constant environment in CNS, lower permeability doesn’t allow many solutes, materials to transfer in
What is the subarachnoid space composed of
collagenous fibers to help anchor cerebral blood vessels
Where is the BBB different from rest of brain?
In hypothalamus, pineal gland capillaries and pituitary gland capillaries (have higher permeability)
what does the pineal gland produce
melatonin
The 2 types of pleura in the thoracic cavity
Parietal- lines the inner surface of thoracic cavity
Visceral - lines the lungs in the cavity
What is the pericardium
dense tissue sac that covers the heart
2 types of peritoneum in the abdominal cavity
Parietal - lines the cavity walls
Visceral - lines the digestive organs
What helps lubricate organs in the abdominal cavity
peritoneal fluid
What is the pericardium made up of
fibrous pericardium and serous pericardium
Intercalated discs
over the myocardium (heart muscle)
-creates direct, electrical connection
3 layers of blood vessels (outer to inner)
adventitia, tunic media, intima
