Final Flashcards
(489 cards)
1
Q
What are the functions of the kidney?
A
- Regulate total water volume
- Regulating ECF ion concentration’s – extracellular fluid
- ensuring long term acid-base balance
- removal of metabolic wastes and toxins
- Produces hormones
- activation of vitamin D
2
Q
Which hormones does the kidneys produce
A
- erythropoietin – red blood cell synthesis
- renin- blood pressure regulation
3
Q
Renal artery
A
Carries blood to the kidneys
4
Q
Renal hilum
A
Entry point for the renal artery and renal vein
5
Q
Renal vein
A
Carries blood away from the kidneys
6
Q
Ureter
A
Carries waste products from the kidneys to the urinary bladder
7
Q
Where are the kiddies located
A
Retroperitoneal and held in place from Renal fascia and masses of adipose tissue
8
Q
What is the outermost layer of the kidneys
A
Renal/ fibrous capsule
9
Q
What is the second layer of the kidneys from the outside in?
A
The cortex
10
Q
Cortex of the kidney
A
Has blood vessels that serve the nephrons and extensions into the renal sinuses called renal columns
11
Q
Renal columns
A
Extensions of the cortex into the renal sinuses
12
Q
Renal medulla
A
Known as the Reno Peerman used to concentrate urine and to collect urine for disposal
13
Q
What is the innermost layer of the kidney
A
The renal pelvis
14
Q
Renal pelvis
A
Resides in the renal sinus – a network of tubes connecting Ceperley to the Ureter
15
Q
Ureter
A
Connects kidneys to the urinary bladder
16
Q
Major calyx
A
Branches from the renal pelvis
17
Q
Minor calyx
A
Branches from the major calyx
18
Q
Renal papilla
A
The area at the end of the pyramid and beginning of the calyx resembles a funnel
19
Q
What is the functional part of the kidney
A
The nephron which is located in the renal Pyramid
20
Q
Trace a drop of blood going through the kidneys starting in the abdominal aorta and ending and the inferior vena cava.
A
Abdominal aorta – renal artery – segmental artery – interlobar artery – arcuate artery (base of cortex)– Cortical radiate artery- afferent arterial - glomerulus (filtration)- Efferent arterial- Peritubular capillaries- vasa recta- Peritubular capillaries- cortical radiate vein- arcuate vein- segmental vein- inferior vena cava
21
Q
What is the renal capsule made out of?
A
Glomerular capsule and glomerulus
22
Q
List the parts of the nephron in order from left to right
A
- Renal corpuscle
-glomerular capsule
-glomerulus - Proximal tubule
Nephron loop - Descending loop
- ascending loop
- Distal tubule
- Collecting duct
23
Q
What are the two types of nephrons.
A
Cortical nephron
Juxtamedullary nephron
24
Q
Cortical nephron
A
- 80%
- used primarily to remove waste
25
Juxtamedullary nephron
- 20%
| - used to reabsorb water concentrates in urine
26
Glomerulus
Blood capillaries
27
Glomerular capsule
Made up of two layers the visceral layer and the parietal layer
28
Visceral layer of the glomerular capsule
Covers the glomerulus with special epithelial cells – podocytes – that act as a filtration barrier
29
Parietal layer of the glomerular capsule
Outer layer of the capsule not directly under visceral because there is a large space between the two
30
What is the juxtaglomerular apparatus anatomy?
-macula densa cells, granular cells, extraglomerular mesangial cells
31
Macula densa cells
And the ascending loop – they have chemo receptors to detect changes in sodium concentration
32
Granular cells
In the a Farrant arterial
- Baroreceptors – to detect changes in blood pressure
- secretory granules- to release renin
33
Extraglomerular mesangial cells
- Transfer signals between macula densa and granular cells
| - activated when there is a decrease in sodium in blood pressure – which activates the Renin-angiotensin system
34
What are the three processes needed for urine formation
- glomerular filtration
- tubular reabsorption
- tubular secretion
35
Glomerular filtration
Filters Water and other small dissolved molecules and ions out of the glomerular capillaries plasma and into the glomerular capsule
36
What type of capillaries are in the glomerulus
Fenestrated to allow filtration
37
Glomerularnephritis
Homeostasis Imbalance
-inflammation caused by type three hypersensitivity where immature complex formed with in streptococcus prevents glomerular filtration
- can happen within a month of having strep throat
38
What are the contents of glomerular filtrate
Water, glucose, amino acids, urea, uric acid, creating, creatinine, sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, bicarbonate, phosphate,Sulfur
39
What other fluid in the body is glomerular filtrate similar to?
Blood cells and plasma proteins are only in tissue fluid
40
What is the main force that moves substances by Phil Traciann through the glomerular capillaries?
Hydrostatic pressure of the blood inside
41
How is glomerular filtration pressure created
From outward pressure from the glomerulus and counteracting forces creating N-word pressure
- colloid osmotic pressure from plasma proteins
- hydrostatic pressure from glomerular capsule
42
What are the three factors in glomerular filtration
1. hydrostatic pressure – glomerulus
2. Inward pressure created by osmotic pressure in the glomerular capsule
3. And would pressure created by hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capsule
43
Outward hydrostatic pressure
Created by moving blood into the glomerulus from the afferent arterial and increased by the narrowed efferent arterial as compared to the afferent
44
Osmotic pressure control
Inward pressure from glomerular capsule – created by blood cells and plasma protein (albumin)
45
Hydrostatic pressure from the glomerular capsule
- inWord pressure
| - created from a large volume of fluid moving into the glomerular capsule from the glomerulus
46
What is the average filtration rate and 24 hours
180L/ 24 hrs
47
How does the average filtration rate compare to the average urine output
Average filter ration is 180 L where as urine output is .6–2.5 L/ 24 hours
48
What other factors can affect the glomerular filtration rate
1. Vasomotor center
2. Obstruction in urinary nephron
3. Renin – angiotensin system
49
Vasomotor center
Of them medulla oblongata using sympathetic nervous system. constricts blood vessels (afferent and efferent) which will increase glomerular filtration rate.
50
Obstruction in urinary nephron
Well increase inward pressure so that the glomerular filtration rate will become zero if obstruction is big enough.
51
Renin- angiotensin system
Used to increase blood pressure which will increase glomerular filtration rate
52
What is the rent and angiotensin system activated by
1. Sympathetic nervous system
2. Baroreceptors
3. Chemoreceptors
53
How is the renin-angiotensin system activated by sympathetic nervous system
Sending signals to granular cells to secrete renin
54
How is the renin- angiotensin system activated by baroreceptors
When the baroreceptor in the granular cells detect low blood pressure and thus makes the cell secrete renin
55
How is the rain and angiotensin system activated by chemoreceptors
Activated chemoreceptors when macula densa cells detect low sodium thus activating the extra glomerular messangeal cells to activate the glomerular cells to secrete renin
56
Of the items filtrated by glomerular filtration what is not reabsorbed?
Erythrocytes, leukocytes, proteins
57
Tubular reabsorption
The process by which substances are transported out of the tubular fluid through the epithelium of the renal tubule and into the interstitial fluid
58
What percentage of ribs or chicken happens in the proximal tubule
85%
59
What factors affect tubular reabsorption
Perry tubular capillaries and epithelium of the proximal tubule
60
How do peritubular capillaries affect tubular rehab sorption
Hi colloid osmotic pressure due to the presence of cells and protein
- Low hydrostatic pressure equals slow movement
- cell membrane is Fenestrated
61
How does epithelium of the proximal tubule affect tubular reabsorption
High hydrostatic pressure from glomerular filtrate
- increased surface area from convution in the tubule
- has carrier proteins for active transport of electrolytes, glucose and amino acid
62
How do you keep blood glucose at a normal level
There are a limited numbers of glucose transports so that normal blood glucose will be reabsorbed. Any extra glucose will be passed in the urine
63
What does the present of glucose in urine indicate
Diabetes
64
How is water brought from the personal tubular to the peritubular capillaries
Sodium is actively passed from the. Proximal tubule to the peritubular capillaries and water is passably transported from the proximal tubule to Peritubular capillary
65
Where is the juxtaglomerular apparatus located and what does it consist of?
Between afferent and you efferent arterials
- macula densa cells – in the ascending loop – have chemo receptors to detect changes in sodium
- granular cells – in the afferent arterial, baroreceptors to detect changes in blood pressure and signals to release renin
- extraglomerular mesangial cells- transfer sales between macula densa and granular cells-activated when there is a decrease in sodium and blood pressure
66
What is the second step in urine information
Tubular reabsorption
67
Tubular reabsorption
The process by which substances are transported out of the tubular fluid through the epithelium of the renal tubule into the interstitial fluid
68
What is the process of sodium and water reabsorption
1. sodium ions are reabsorbed by active transport
2. Negatively charged ions are attracted to positively charged ions – create salt
3. As concentration of ions increases and plasma, osmotic pressure increases
4. Water moves from proximal tubule to capillary by osmosis.
69
How much is remaining after tubular rehab sorption and where is it absorbed
15% and it occurs in the distal tubule and nephron loop
70
What two factors helps to absorb the remaining 15%
Antidiuretic hormone, countercurrent mechanisms
71
What is the role of antidiuretic hormone
1. Stimulus – blood volume decreases
2. Receptor – osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
3. Control center – posterior pituitary gland will release antidiuretic hormone
4. Effector – distal tubule of the nephron to increase water absorption using Aquaporins.
5. Response – water will move into the peritubular capillaries and urine becomes concentrated
72
Aquaporins
Channel proteins to passively transport water
73
Countercurrent mechanism
The countercurrent mechanism ensures that the medullary interstitial fluid becomes hypertonic. This occurs in the nephron loop of the Juxtamedullary nephrons.
74
What are the factors that contribute to the countercurrent mechanism
1. countercurrent multiplier
| 2. countercurrent exchanger
75
Countercurrent multiplier
Interaction of filtrate flow and ascending/descending limb of the nephron loop of Juxtamedullary nephrons
76
Countercurrent exchanger
Blood flow in the a sending/descending lambs of the vast director – peritubular capillaries surrounding the nephron loop
77
What three properties of the nephron loop are dependent on to establish the osmotic gradient
1. Fluid flows in the opposite direction – countercurrent – through 2 adjacent parallel sections of the nephron loop
2. The descending limb is permeable to water but not to salt.
3. The ascending limb is in permeable to water and pumps out salt
78
What is the result of the countercurrent multiplier
Establishes a positive feedback cycle that increases salt in the medulla to enhance osmosis of water into medulla
79
What is special about the ascending limb of the nephron loop?
Makes the medulla hypertonic
80
What are the steps of the countercurrent exchanger – vasa recta
1. Blood flows down into the descending vasa recta.
2. NaCl moves into vasa recta by diffusion from the medulla
3. In a sending vasa recta NaCl diffuses into medulla
4. This preserves gradient
81
Why is there no osmosis along with NaCl diffusion?
Because water is attracted to the high colloid osmotic pressure in the vasa recta
82
Why is the water attracted to the Vasa recta
Because of the plasma protein and cells that attract it there
83
What is step three in urine formation
Tubular secretion
84
Tubular secretion
- Disposes of substances down to plasma proteins – drugs
- eliminates undesirable substances passively reabsorbed – urea and uric acid
- read the body of access potassium – aldosterone affect
- Controls blood pH by altering amounts of hydrogen or HCO3 in urine
85
What type of process is tubular secretion
An active process and requires ATP
86
Diuretics
These drugs counteract tubular reabsorption
87
What with diuretics be used to treat
Hypertension to lower blood volume to prevent tubular reabsorption
88
What chemicals enhance urinary output
* ADH inhibitors-alcohol
* Na reabsorption inhibitors-caffeine, drugs for hypertension or Edema
* Loop diuretics – inhibit medullary gradient formation. Disrupts countercurrent multiplier
* Osmotic diuretics – seven cents not ribs award so water remains in urine high glucose of diabetic patients – glucose is attracted to water
89
What are the common components in urine?
- 95% water
| - The rest is urea, uric acid, amino acids, and electrolytes
90
How would you and production indicate kidney failure
If lower than normal
Normal is 56 mL per hour, 30 mL per hour indicates can you failure
1/3 cup equals kidney failure, 1/2 cup equals normal
91
What items are not usually found in urine
Glucose, proteins, pus, red blood cells, hemoglobin, bile pigment
92
What would glucose in your urine indicate
Glycosuria-diabetes Mellitus
93
What would proteins in your urine indicate
Proteinurea-pregnancy, hypertension, glomerulonephritis
94
What would pus in your urine indicate
Pyuria- urinary tract infection
95
What would red blood cells in your urine indicate
Hematuria- trauma, infection, kidney stones
96
What would hemoglobin in your urine indicate
Hemoglobinuria- transfusion reaction, Hemolytic anemia
97
What would bile pigments in your urine indicate
Bilirubinuria-liver disease
98
What are common signs and symptoms of urinary disease?
- dysuria
- nocturia
- oliguria
- anuria
- frequency
- urgency
- uremia
99
Dysuria
Difficulty or painful urination
100
Nocturia
Increased urination at night
101
Oliguria
Decreased urine output
102
Anuria
No urine output
103
Frequency
Urinating frequently
104
Urgency
Need to urinate immediately
105
Uremia
Hi levels of urea in blood
106
Renal clearance
The rate at which a particular chemical is removed from the plasma and indicates kidney efficiency
107
What tests are real parents to type with Marial or damage or monitor possession of renal disease
1. Insulin clearance test
2. Creatinine clearance text
3. Para-aminohippuric acid
108
What other organs are in the urinary system?
Ureters
Urinary Bladder
Urethra
109
Ureters
- 25 cm long
- extend the rain I'll tell this down where the bladder where is connected on the posterior side area
- functions and moving urine from the kidneys to the urinary bladder using Peristalsis
110
Three layers of the uterus
1- innermost layer- Thick layer of transitional epithelium
2- middle layer- muscular coat- smooth muscle fibers in circular and longitudinal bundles
3- fibrous coat – outer coat – connective tissue
111
How is backflow of urine from the bladder into the ureter prevented?
And mucus flap/valve separates the ureter from the bladder
112
Insulin Clarence test
- insulin is a polysaccharide from plant roots. Goes in blood but once in urine stains in urine
- filtered by glomerular filtrate ocean but not reabsorbed into peritubular capillaries
- this measures glomerular filtration rate
113
Creatinine clearance test
Creatinine is produced during muscle metabolism, and as a byproduct of the breakdown of Creatine and phosphate.
- creatinine is filtered through Camaros and not reabsorbed
- creatinine level should be consistent and blood, therefore the amount present indicates glomerular filtration rate
- creatine increased in the blood means that the GFR is affected
114
Para-aminohippuric acid
BA H is an acid that is filtered by glomerular filtrate Chin, but is reabsorbed into Perry tubular capillaries and secreted into the distal tubule
-we can use this test to determine total blood flow versus glomerular filtration rate
115
Homeostasis in balance of the ureter
Renal calculi- kidney stones
116
Kidney stones
Will form an obstruction
- cause severe radiating pain in the abdomen and lower limbs
- 60% of the time there pass spontaneously
- 40% of the time they will require ESWL or surgery
117
What is a kidney stone made of
Calcium, phosphate, uric acid
118
ESWL
Extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy
| -shockwave sent through a waterbath into the body to fragment the stones for passage
119
Urinary bladder
- behind peritoneum, lower pelvis
- muscular sac for temporary storage of urine
- Male – prostate inferior to bladder neck
- female – anterior to vagina and uterus
120
What is the difference between male and female urinary systems
Female – 4 cm long, one part, one passage of urine to the outside of body, UTI is more common due to the short length the of urethra and the urethra is closer to the anus
Mel – 19.5 cm, three parts/prosthetic urethra and prostate, membranes us urethra, Penal urethra, there are two functions one is the passage of urine and two is the transport of semen
121
Urinary bladder
Three layers of bladder wall
1. Mucosa – transitional epithelium mucosa
2. Thick detrusor- three layers of smooth muscle
3. Trigone- smooth triangular area outline but openings for uterus and urethra infections 10 to persist in this region – commonplace for UTI
122
What are the three layers of the urethra
Mucosa – actively secretes mucus
Muscular layer – smooth longitudinal muscles for Peristalsis
Fibrous coat – for protection
123
What are the eight steps to micturition
1. urinary bladder decisions as it fills with urine, urinary bladder can hold up to 600 mL.
2. stretcher scepters in the bladder wall are stimulated and I signal to the micturition center in the brain and spinal cord.
3. Parasympathetic nerve impulses travel to the detrusor muscle (in bladder) from the spinal cord, which response by contracting rhythmically as long as sympathetic nerve impulses are not activated by the spinal cord.
4. The need to urinate is urgent – this signal can start as early as 150 mL and sensation get stronger as filling continues.
5. Voluntary contraction of the external urethral sphincter and inhibition of the maturation reflex by impulses from the pontine maturation Center and the cerebral cortex prevent urination-no bathroom
6. Following the decision to urinate the external urethral sphincter is relaxed by inhibiting somatic nerve activity and impulses from the pontine micturition and the cerebral cortex facilitate the micturition reflex.
7. The detrusor muscle contracts and the internal urethral sphincter relaxes and the urine is expelled/released through the urethra
8. The micturition reflex subsides, the detrusor muscle relaxes and the internal urethral sphincter contracts and the bladder begins to fill with urine again
124
What is an electrolyte? Where do they come from?
And I Amber has disassociated in water and is capable of conducting electricity
-from salts acids and bases
125
What is the role of water in electrolyte formation?
What uses hydrogen bonding to dissociate sources of ions
126
What is the relationship between water and electrolytes
Water loves salt or sources of electrolytes and follows them using osmosis
127
Who has more water men or women?
Males have 63% wait by water where women have 52% weight by water because women have more fat
128
What are the two major compartments in which water in the body with its dissolved electrolytes distributed into?
intracellular fluid- Two thirds of water resides inside the cells
Interstitial fluid – one third of water reside outside of the cells.
- also found in the eyes, joints, central spinal fluid
129
How much of an infants weight is made up by water
73%
130
What is the most abundant electrolyte an intracellular fluid
Potassium
131
What is the most abundant electrolyte in extracellular fluid?
Biocarbonate
132
What are the two major factors regulating the movement of water and electrolytes from one fluid compartment to another?
Hydrostatic pressure and osmotic pressure
133
Hydrostatic pressure
Fluid moving fluid through vessels that decrease in diameter for passive transportation through filtration
134
Osmotic pressure
Created by movement of water from a high concentration to low concentration and presence of an in permeable solut- water love salt, Na is impermeable solute
135
Hypotonic
lower solute concentration on the outside of the cell that on the inside of the cell
136
Hypertonic
Higher salute concentration on the outside of the cell than that on the inside of the cell
137
Isotonic
A solution that has the same salt concentration on the inside of the cell as on the outside of the cell
138
Crenation
Cell shrinks – hypertonic
139
Hydrolysis
Swelling of a cell – hypotonic
140
Water balance
Regulates intake by creating thirst sensation
141
What are the major sources of water intake
Metabolism, foods, beverages
142
What are the major sources of water output
Feces, sweat, insensible losses be a skin and lungs, urine
143
What is the most modified water output
Urine
144
Where is the thirst center located?
?
145
What is the process of regulation of water intake/creation of thirst sensation
1. Osmotic pressure and extracellular fluid increases volume of water decreases and salute concentration increases.
- stimulates Osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus
- triggered when total body water is decreased by 1%.
2. If blood plasma decreases 5 to 10% blood pressure will decrease which will detect and granular cells of the kidney to start the renin-angiotensin system.
- activation of their sitter will cause mouth to become dry and encourage drinking
146
When does thirst stop
When fluid does sends the stomach and plasma volume and extracellular fluid pressure returns to normal
147
How is water output regulated during dehydration
By concentrating urine
148
How is the output of urine regulated during dehydration
Stimulated by increase in extracellular fluid osmotic pressure, an increase of Na in extracellular fluid and a decrease in plasma volume
-I smell receptors and hypothalamus will stimulate the posterior pituitary gland to release ADH
149
Where is ADH released from
Posterior pituitary gland
150
Dehydration
Extracellular fluid water loss due to hemorrhage, severe burns, prolonged vomiting or diarrhea, perfuse sweating, water deprivation, diuretic abuse, endocrine disturbances
151
What are signs and symptoms of water dehydration
Cottony mouth, thirst, dry flush skin, oliguria
-May lead to weight loss, fever, mental computing, hypovolemic shock, and lots of electrolytes
152
What are the consequences of dehydration
Cell crenation – excess loss of H2O from extracellular fluid – extracellular fluid osmotic pressure rises – cell loses H2O to extracellular fluid by osmosis and the cell shrinks
153
Water intoxication
Cellular overhydration – occurs with renal insufficiency he or rapid access water ingestion
154
What is water intoxication treated with
Hypertonic saline
155
What are the consequences of hypotonic hydration
Hydrolysis of the cell – excess water enters the extracellular fluid – extracellular fluid asthmatic pressure falls Dash water moves into the cell by osmosis and the cell swells
156
Edema
And abnormal accumulation of extracellular fluid and the extracellular spaces – and her schedule fluid
157
What are the four causes of edema
- Low plasma protein-liver or kidney disease
- obstruction of lymph vessels-surgery or infection
- increased venous pressure -Venous obstruction
- inflammation-tissue damage, mosquito bites or wounds
158
Electrolyte regulation
And electrolyte balance exist with the quantities of electrolytes that the body gain equal those that is lost
159
What do you think are important electrolytes and the body based on the previous lecture
Calcium, sodium, potassium
160
What are the major sources of intake for electrolyte balance
Food, fluids, metabolic reactions
161
What are the major sources of output for electrolyte balance
Respiration, feces, urine
162
What electrolyzer pound of innercellular fluid
Potassium
163
What electrolytes are found in the extracellular fluid
Sodium, chloride, calcium, bicarbonate
164
Sodium
Important for impulse conduction along an axon and membrane permeability
- nerve cells
- needed for contraction of the skeletal and cardiac muscle
165
Potassium
Important for maintaining resting potential of nerve and cardiac muscle cells – repolarization
166
Calcium
Important for neurotransmitter release in neurons and important for all muscle contractions
- important for both cardiac and skeletal muscle
Skeletal muscle – inhibits contraction
cardiac muscle – stimulates contraction
167
Regulation of sodium
Sodium regulation -low sodium is controlled by the hormone aldosterone
168
Hypernatremia
High sodium
169
Hyponatremia
Low-sodium
170
What is hypernatremia caused by
-dehydration, fever, Cushing syndrome
171
Cushing syndrome
Over active adrenal cortex, absorbing a lot of sodium causes bloating
172
What are the effects of hypernatremia
Adema, thirst, lethargic, agitation, increase blood pressure
173
How is hypernatremia regulated
There are no receptors to detect high sodium – the use of Osmo receptors because of high sodium correlates with high osmotic pressure in the extracellular fluid
174
What is hyponatremia caused by
Prolonged water electrolyte loss by perspiration
- water intoxication – extreme exercise or renal failure
- excessive diarrhea and vomiting
- addison's disease – adrenal cortex isn't working means we are not producing aldosterone
175
What are the effects of hyponatremia
Fatigue due to muscle weakness, confusion, seizure, cramping and nausea
176
How is hyponatremia regulated
Detected by chemo receptors in the macula densa cells in the ascending loop of the nephron as part of the juxtaglomerular apparatus
sends a signal to the extraglomerular mesingeal cells
- which send the signal to the granular cells in the afferent arterial to release renin to start the renin-angiotensin system
- so that the adrenal gland releases aldosterone to reabsorb sodium in the distal tubule of the nephron in the kidney
177
What does aldosterone do
Regulate sodium and potassium
178
Where is aldosterone released from
Adrenal gland
179
What triggers the release of aldosterone
The start of the renin – angiotensin system
180
Regulation of potassium
Is controlled by the hormone aldosterone
181
Hypokalemia
Low potassium
182
Hyperkalemia
High potassium
183
How is sodium and potassium related
When sodium decreases potassium increases
184
What is hypokalemia caused by
Diuretic drugs and kidney disease
185
What does hypokalemia effect on the body
Causes paralysis – muscles are contracted also known as tetany
Respiratory difficulty – severe cardiac dysrhythmia – speeds up the heart
186
How is hypokalemia regulated
No not receptors for potassium and low levels – no regulation by body
187
What is hyperkalemia caused by
Renal disease, certain drugs, Addison's disease because aldosterone is not produced
188
What affects on the body does hyperkalemia cause
Paralysis, fatigue, nausea, cardiac dysrhythmia, slows the heart rate
189
How is hyper kalemia regulated by the body
-increase in potassium concentration and extracellular fluid equals decreased sodium content which triggers renin release increasing angiotensin two
- stimulates the adrenal cortex
- adrenal cortex releases aldosterone
- aldosterone targets the kidney tubules
- The kidney tubules increase sodium bring absorption and increase potassium secretion
- which restores homeostatic plasma levels of sodium and potassium
190
What is the difference between Addison's disease and Cushing's disease
Cushing's disease has an overactive adrenal cortex which causes absorbency of a loan sodium where as Addison's disease the adrenal cortex is not working which means you're not producing aldosterone
191
Regulation of calcium
Controlled by the hormone parathyroid hormone
192
Where in the body does most of the calcium reside
99% of calcium is in the bones the other 1% is in the extracellular fluid
193
What is calcium and extracellular fluid important for
Blood clotting, cell membrane permeability, sensory activities, neuromuscular excitability – most important
194
Hypocalcemia
Less than enough calcium
195
What is hypocalcemia caused by
Reduce parathyroid function, low absorption of vitamin D, gastrointestinal diseases, kidney disease
196
What effect does hypocalcemia have on the body
Tetany – calcium and Hibbetts skeletal muscle contraction
| Tingling sensation, mental confusion, weak heart
197
Hypercalcemia
Very rare, excess calcium
198
What is hypercalcemia caused by
Over active parathyroid – hyperparathyroidism
- increased PTH
- cancer
199
What effects on the body does hypercalcemia have
Can you stones, promote strong cardiac contractions (dysrhythmia), muscles weakened
200
How is hypercalcemia regulated in the body
Rare condition in which the body does not require regulation
201
What is the role of parathyroid hormone
It regulates increased osteoclast activity in the bone, increases calcium reabsorption in the kidney, and increases activation of vitamin D by the kidney
202
Where is parathyroid hormone released from
From the parathyroid gland
203
What triggers the release of parathyroid hormone
Hypocalcemia
204
Acids release what electrolyte?
H+ - hydrogen
205
Bases really is what electrolyte
OH - hydroxide
206
Why is it important to regulate hydrogen ions in the body
Because high hydrogen ion concentration correlates with low pH which in Hibbetts enzyme function
207
What is the normal pH of blood
7.4
208
What are some sources of hydrogen in the body
Aerobic respiration of glucose, anaerobic respiration of glucose, incomplete accident Acacian of fatty acids, oxidation of sulfur – containing amino acid, hydrolysis of possible proteins and nucleic acid
209
Give a reaction that would explain the production of CO2 when H is in excess of the body
Biocarbonate buffer system
210
What are the name of two additional chemical buffer systems in the body
Phosphate buffer system, protein buffer system
211
List 2 physiological buffer systems
Respiratory and renal system
212
What do respiratory and renal systems do?
Regulate amount of acid or base and body, act more slowly than chemical buffer systems, have more capacity than the chemical buffer system
213
What is respiratory acidosis
CO2 accumulates in the blood and the pH drops
214
What is respiratory acidosis caused by
I'm not properly exhaling CO2 this happens if you have COPD
215
What is metabolic acidosis
Low blood pH do to accumulation of one or more of the following acids
- acetic acid/ ketones
- acetic acid
216
What factors led to metabolic acidosis
Acetic acid/Keytones-starvation
| Acetic acid- alcohol consumption in excess
217
What is respiratory alkalosis
CO2 is 11 AM from the body faster than it is produced and blood pH rises
218
What factors lead to respiratory alkalosis
Hyperventilation
219
What is metabolic alkalosis
Blood pH rises along with bicarbonate
220
What factors lead to metabolic alkalosis
Caused by over taking antacids
221
What is normal blood pH
7.4
222
Gametes in males
Produce sperm cells
223
Gametes and females
Produce oocytes
224
How many chromosomes are in human cells
46
225
Explain crossing over
As a result of crossing over any offspring that you produce will have 70 trillion genetically unique possibilities
226
Explain mitosis
Mitosis is a cell division where the starting Cell has 46 chromosomes as does the duplicate cell
227
Explain meiosis
Pairing of Homologas chromosomes – 23 pairs
228
What functions are the male reproductive system specialized to do
To produce and maintain sperm cells, transferred the cells for the purpose of reproduction, secrete male sex hormones
229
Testes
The organs in which the sperm cells are produced and where the male sex hormones are produced and secreted
230
What hormone is produced in the testes
Testosterone
231
Tunica vaginalis
Outer layer of the testes
232
Tunica albuginea
Inner shade of dense connective tissue that divides the testes into 250 lobules per testie
233
Seminiferous tubules
In each lobule one seminiferous tubule is present and is the location of spermatogenesis
234
Rate testis
The convergence point of all 250 seminiferous tubules
235
Epididymis
Receives immature sperm (non-motile) spermatid – produced in the seminiferous tubule and becomes more mature- (motile) spermatozoans
236
Vas (ductus) deferens
Extension of the epididymis where motile spermatozoans travel to the ejaculatory duct
237
Spermatic cord
Contains the vas deferens and blood vessels from the testes to the of Domino cavity
238
When does the descent of the testes occur
The test is in the fetus usually just send from an area near the developing kidney to the scrotum up to two months before birth
239
Why do the testes descend
The temperature in the body is too high and it will kill the sperm so they must be outside the body
240
Gubernaculum
Fibromuscular cord that aids in the movement of the testes during dissent and through the inguinal canal
241
Inguinal canal
Opening through abdomen above pubis symphysis
242
Spermatic cord
Act as a tether connecting testy to body
243
Crytorchisism
When testes failed to descend – require surgery and if occurs male will be sterile
244
Why will a male be sterile if he suffers from crytorchidism?
Sperm production requires 95°F there for testes have to be outside the body and if they do not drop the sperm cells will die at birth
245
Spermatogenesis
Permission of sperm cells – occurs continually and Mel starting at puberty
246
What are the steps of spermatogenesis
1. Spermatogonia cells are produced before puberty and the Seminiferous tubules in large numbers.
2. At puberty each spermatogonium divides into two cells.
- One cell stays a spermatogonium
- another sub comes a primary spermatocyte
3. Primary spermatocyte goes through meiosis one
4. Resulting secondary spermatocytes undergo meiosis two and gives rise to four haploid spermatocytes.
5. Spermatic teds moved to epididymis temperature into functional gametes. Spermatozoan
247
Head of the sperm
Contains the nucleus and the acrosome
248
Nucleus of the sperm
Contains 23 chromatids
249
Acrosome
Small portion of the end of the head that contains hyaluronidase an enzyme needed to penetrate oocytes during fertilization
250
The mid piece of the sperm
Central filamentous core filled with mitochondria – powerhouse making ATP – cellular respiration
251
Tell of sperm
For propulsion
252
Male internal reproductive organs
These organs are important in making secretions needed to maintain sperm during the process of ejaculator shin and sexual intercourse
253
Bulbourethral glands
Located inferior to prostate gland and within the urogenital diaphragm
- secretions are formed before the ejaculation of other semen components
- lubrication mucus
254
Seminal vesicle
Gland that attaches to the vas deferens near the base of the urinary bladder.
- 70% of semen by secreting an alkaline fluid that regulates the pH of tubular content while and Male and also female makes fructose to be used for cellular respiration
255
Prostate gland
Doughnut shaped gland that surrounds the urethra – makes a milky white secretion to neutralize the waste products of sperm as a result this will enhance sperm mobility
256
Scrotum
Patch of skin that surrounds and supports the testes
257
What are the two muscles of the scrotum
Cremaster muscle
| Dartos muscle
258
Cremaster muscle
Found in the spermatic cord upon contraction brings testes closer to the body happens under college conditions and when in danger
259
Dartos muscle
Actually in the scrotum – when contracted the service area of the skin is reduced happens in the cold
260
Serous membrane in the scrotum
To ensure testes and epididymis move smoothly with in the scrotum
261
Penis
Cylinder Oregon that conveys urine and semen through the urethra to outside
262
What are the three layers of the penis
Tunica albuginea, corpora cavernosa, corpus spongopsum
263
Tunica albuginea
Dense connective tissue and outer layer for protection
264
Corpora cavernosa
Two columns of erectile tissue that surrounds the two arteries
265
Corpus spongiosum
Glans penis – head – one column of tissue that surrounds the urethra extends to form the glans penis covered by the foreskin that may be removed at circumcision
266
Explain the process of an erection
1. Sexual stimulation in the glans penis
2. Parasympathetic neurons release nitric oxide, causing dilation of small arteries to the penis
- veins are compressed reducing blood flow away from penis
3. Blood accumulates in the vascular spaces within the erectile tissue of the penis
4. Penis welcome to come erect
267
Emission
The release of seminal fluid and sperm into the urethra
268
Ejaculation
Semen is forcefully expelled from the urethra
269
Orgasm
Call nation of sexual stimulation the results and a feeling of physiological release. And Mills is accompanied by emission and ejaculation
270
What are the primary sex organs
Ovary and testy
271
What are the functions of the female reproductive system
To produce and maintain the female sex cells, transport the sounds to site of fertilization, provide a favorable environment for a developing offspring, move offspring to the outside, and produce female sex hormones
272
What hormones are produced in the female reproductive system
Estrogen and progesterone and they are produced in the ovary
273
Loge exits
Meiosis one begins during the fetal period But is arrested. Oogonia cells increase in number at the time of birth, 1 million of the cells remain. This is the total number of that woman will ever have produced in her lifetime
Oogonia cells arrest during prophase one of meiosis and are wrapped and flattened epithelial cells to form memorial follicles they remain dormant until puberty which then become primary oocytes.
274
How does the number of eggs a woman has compared to the number of sperm men have
And men spermatozoids are continually produced and there are 120 million sperm per milliliter of semen where as a woman will never produce more than what she has at birth
275
How many sperm cells are found in semen normally
120 million sperm per milliliter of semen
276
How much sperm is found and one ejaculation
One ejaculation equals 5 mL of semen which equals 600 million sperm
277
Explain ooGenesis at puberty
- primary oocyte becomes his primary follicle
- meiosis this one is completed producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body
- secondary oh site and larges to form a graafian follicle
- during ovulation, secondary oocyte is released from the follicle. The follicle becomes the corpus luteum.
- meiosis 2 can only occur if fertilization takes place in which case the ovum will be produced with a second polar body
- when a sperm nucleus combines with the ovum nucleus, a Zygote created
278
What does a spermatozoen fertilize
A secondary oocyte
279
Why are polar bodies necessary
To make large cells to promote and accommodate fertilization – to make room
280
Which female organ corresponds to the scrotum and the male body
The labia majora
281
What female organ corresponds to the male penis
The clitorus
282
What female organ corresponds with the bulbourethral gland
Vestibule
283
Uterine tube
Connected to the uterus, covers but does not connect to the overly
284
Infundibulum
Funnel shaped extension of the uterine tube – has been breaks tensions
285
What are the functions of the uterine tube
Receives secondary oocyte, fertilization of secondary oocyte, uses peristalsis and ciliary action to transport zygote into uterus
286
Uterus
Hollow muscular organ shaped like a pair, lower one third of uterus is called cervix
287
What are the three layers of the uterus and their function
- endometrium – innermost layer
- Myometrium – muscle layer
- perimetrium-outer serosal layer
288
What is the function of the uterus
Receive embryo and sustains development
289
Vagina
Extends from the uterus to the outside, vaginal to that surrounds the cervix of the uterus is called the Fornices and use for pelvic examination
290
Hymien
Then membrane of connective tissue that covers the opening of the vagina partially can be separated and moved from vagional wall
291
What are the functions of the vagina
Convey uterine secretions, serves as a Burlington now, receives erecting penis during sexual intercourse
292
Vulva anatomy
- labia majora
- labia minora
- vestibule
293
Labia majora
Outer covering made of skin, creates the peritoneum on the posterior side and the Mons pubis on the anterior side
294
Labia minora
Flattened longitudinal folds of tissue that contains many blood vessels so that the tissues appear pink/red
- creates the clitoris on the anterior side – clitoris has erectile tissue made of corpora cavernosa
295
Vestibule
Space that is enclosed by the labia menorah, has the opening of the vagina, a pair of the Stabile her glands lie on either side of the vagina that secrete mucus
296
What are the steps and an erection for a female
1. Sexual stimulation of clitoris
2. Parasympathetic neurons release nitric oxide, causing dilation of small arteries and erectile tissue
3. Arteries in the erectile tissue dilate vagina expand and elongates
- engorged and swollen vagina increases function from movement of the penis
4. sexual salvation intensifies so that vestibular glance to create mucus for lubrication facilitating insertion of the penis
5. Orgasm – uterine walls, uterine tubes contract to move sperm through reproductive organs
297
What does estrogen do
Brings on secondary sex characteristics
298
What does breast development require
Progesterone
299
What does FSH stimulate
Maturation of folic you'll and secretion of estrogen
300
What does LH stimulate
Ovaries to produce estrogen precursor molecules
301
What is LH responsible for
Ovulation
302
Mammary glands
Are sensory organs of the female reproductive system specialist to secrete milk following pregnancy
303
Where are mammary glands located
And the sub continuous tissue of the anterior thorax called the breast. The breast over a lot of the pectoralis major muscles
304
Nipple
Is present on the breast and provides an opening for the mammory glands
305
Areola
A pigmented circular area surrounding the nipple
306
Prolactin
Needed for milk production produced in the anterior pituitary gland
307
Female reproductive cycle
Maturation of the Oocyte, ovulation, ministration
308
First reproductive
Menarche, 10 to 13 years
309
Day one through five
- GNRH stimulates the release of FSH and LH to act on the ovaries
1. release estrogen and progesterone to support the development of oocytes
310
Day six through 14
2. FSH stimulates the maturation of a fall like you to become the Graafian follicle
3. Endometrium will become thicker responding to increased production of progesterone and estrogen.
4. The formation of graafian follicle kill well inhibit the pituitary gland from releasing LH
311
Day 14
5. GNRH causes a huge release of LH from the pituitary gland cousin ovulation – release of secondary oocyte into the uterine tube
6. The remaining graafian follicle to come the corpus luteum and produce estrogen and progesterone to thicken the uterus
7. If fertilization occurs high levels of estrogen and pedestrian produced corpus luteum to sustain the pregnancy
312
Day 24
8. If no fertilization the corpus luteum degenerates and becomes absorbed by the ovaries
313
Day 25 through five
10. Blood from damage capillaries in the endometrium will carry the lining through the vagina as a ministry flow- menses
- this can extend into day one through five of the cycle
314
Menopause
The period in a woman's life when the reproductive cycle stops usually around age 50
315
What are the nine glands of the endocrine system
1. anterior pituitary gland
2. Posterior pituitary gland
3. Thyroid gland
4. Parathyroid gland
5. Adrenal gland
6. Testes/ovaries
7. Thymus gland
8. Penial gland
316
Anterior pituitary gland
Tropic
- thyroid stimulating hormone
- Adrenocortotropic hormone
- follicle-stimulating hormone
- Luteinizing hormone
Non tropic
- growth hormone
- prolactin
317
Thyroid stimulating hormone
Stimulates the thyroid
318
Follicle-stimulating hormone
Stimulate sperm production and men and stimulates the development of ovarian follicles and women
319
Adrenocortotropic hormone
Signals the adrenal gland
320
Luteinizing hormone
Stimulate ovulation – the release of the female egg – ministration
Stimulates testosterone production in the testes
321
Growth hormone
Stimulates growth in bones and muscle
322
Prolactin
Stimulates milk production in mammory glands
323
What is non-tropic mean
Hormones that stimulate body functions as opposed to tropic which means they control other endocrine glands
324
Posterior pituitary gland produces what hormones
- Antidiuretic hormone
| - Oxytocin
325
Antidiuretic hormone
Regulates water balance by increasing water reabsorption
326
Oxytocin
Stimulates uterine contraction of smooth muscles and enhances labor contractions
327
The thyroid gland produces what hormones
Thyroid hormone
328
Thyroid hormone
Regulate your metabolism, regulates growth of tissues and in some part regulates blood pressure
329
The parathyroid gland produces what hormones
Parathyroid hormone
330
Parathyroid hormone
- stimulates osteoclasts to digest bone matrix and release Ca2+ to blood
- enhances rehabilitation of Ca2 + and secretion of phosphate by kidneys
- promotes activation of vitamin D by the kidneys and increases absorption of Ca2 + by intestinal mucosa
331
Adrenal gland
Adrenal medulla
-epinephrine/norepinephrine
adrenal cortex
- aldosterone
- cortisol
- androgens
332
Epinephrine/norepinephrine
Stimulates the heart, respiration, and increase of glucose and blood
Vasodilation and blood vessels
In response to sympathetic nervous system
333
Aldosterone
Induces the reabsorption of sodium in the kidneys to help reabsorb water
334
Cortisol
Stimulates the process of glucogenesis making glucose from alternative sources
- maintains blood pressure
- suppresses the immune system
335
Androgens
Male sex hormones produced by both sexes
-promotes onset of puberty and development of secondary sex characteristics
- female sex drive
336
Penial gland
- melatonin
| - serotonin
337
Serotonin
Neurotransmitter
338
Melatonin
Involved in regulating day/night cycle, regulates physiological process of sleeping, body temperature, appetite and produces antioxidants to fight cancer
339
Ovaries
Estrogen and progesterone
340
Estrogen
Maturation of reproductive organs
- appearance of secondary sex characteristics-breast enlargement, wider hips, higher pitched voice, minestrone cycle
- production of eggs
341
Progesterone
Breast development and cycle changes in uterine Macosa
342
Testes
Produce testosterone
343
Testosterone
- initiates maturation of male reproductive organs
- causes the parents of male secondary sex Characteristics such as facial hair chest hair voice deepening big muscles and broad shoulders
- sex drive
- necessary for normal sperm production
344
Thymus gland
Produces Thymosin
345
Thymosin
Needed for the production and maturation of certain white blood cells – T lymphocytes
346
Pancreas
Produces insulin and glucagon
347
Insulin
- Produced by beta cells in the pancreas
- signal delivered to convert glucose into go to gun for storage which can cause blood glucose levels to decrease
- signals body cells to uptake glucose
348
Glucagon
- produced by alpha cells in the pancreas
| - signals liver to convert glycogen to glucose which causes blood levels to increase
349
Plasma
Clear liquid part of blood
| -92% water+ proteins + gases + nutrients + electrolytes + urea +uric acid
350
Buffy coat
White blood cells and platelets
351
Erythrocytes
Red blood cells
352
Why is blood a type of connective tissue
Because it has sale surrounding by extracellular matrix
353
How present is blood in the body
Blood volume is typically 8% of the bodyweight and an adult has 5 L of blood
354
Hematopoiesis
Needed for formed elements occurs and red bone matrix
-blood cell formation and red bone marrow
355
Leukocyte
White blood cell – destroys pathogenic microorganisms and parasites and removes worn cells
356
What are the different types of leukocytes
Neutrophil, lymphocyte, monocyte, eosinophil, basophil
357
Neutrophil
- granular
-most abundant
First to arrive at the site of infection and carries out phagocytosis
358
Lymphocyte
- Agranular
- provides immunity
- Second most abundant
359
Monocyte
-Agranular
-Phagocytosis
Third most abundant
360
Esosinophil
-granular
-kills parasitic worms and has a role in allergic reactions and inflammation
Fourth most abundant
361
Basophil
- granular
- release histamine and heparin
- least abundant
362
Albumin
Helps maintain colloid osmotic pressure to control blood pressure
363
Globulin
Alpha and beta – transport lipids and that soluble nutrients and hormones
Gamma – antibodies used in immunity
364
Fibrinogen
Blood coagulation
365
Platelets
- thrombocytes
| - made from broken fragments of megakaryocytes
366
Hemostasis
First series of reactions for stoppage of bleeding
– requires clotting factors and substances released by platelets and injured tissues
367
What are the three steps in hemostasis
1. vascular spasm
2. Platelet plug formation
3. Coagulation
368
Vascular spasm
A cut and a small blood vessel
– stimulates vascular spasm
– reflexes excited by pain receptors in the injured tissue
369
What is the result of vascular spasm
-Blood loss lessons almost immediately
– the ends of severed vessels may close completely
– they affect last 30 minutes
– and small blood vessel this is enough time to close the ends
370
Platelet plug formation
Damaged endothelium exposes collagen fibers
– platelet stick to collagen fibers via plasma protein von Willebrand factor
– Swell become spiky and sticky and release chemical messengers
371
What happens as a result of the platelet plug formation
– ADP causes more playlist to stick and release their contents
– positive feedback to the original stimulus
– continue and enhance original stimulus
372
Blood coagulation
There are two coagulation methods
– extrinsic clotting mechanism
– intrinsic clotting mechanism
373
Extrinsic clotting mechanism
Triggered by damage from the outside
374
Intrinsic clotting mechanism
Triggered by damaging the blood vessel from the inside
375
What does blood coagulation depend on
-presence of clotting factors vitamin K – necessary for clotting factors to work
– activation of procoagulants – precursors to putting factors
376
What are three different types of abnormal blood clots
-thrombosis
– embolism
– infarction
377
Thrombosis
Clotting and I'm broken vessels result of intrinsic clotting caused by damage to the lining
378
Plaque
Build up of cholesterol in a vessel
379
Thrombus
Blood clot blocking the flow of the vessel – formation is associated with ischemia which is reduced blood flow equaling decreased O2 to surrounding tissues
380
Embolism
Clotting result from a previous dislodged blood clot blocking a new blood vessel
381
Infarction
Clotting that causes surrounding tissue to be killed
necrosis – dead tissue as a result of complete blockage
382
What is ischemia
Reduce blood flow which causes decreased oxygen to surrounding tissues
383
What are the four possible blood typesand what antigens and antibodies are found at each blood type
Type a – A antigens. B antibodies
Type B – B antigens. A antibodies
Type AB- both a and B antigens. No antibodies
Type O- neither a or B antigens. A and B antibodies
384
Agglutination
The result of an antibody antigen interaction where sells clump together
385
What blood type is the universal receiver
A B
386
What blood type is a universal donor
Type O
387
Erythroblastosis fetalsis
Condition where mother is negative and has a D antibodies and baby is positive camper vent by using RhoGAM drug made from antibodies against antigen D
388
Species resistance
Affects other species not your own because their cells do not have receptors for the pathogen or or provide a suitable environment for the pathogen
A type of an eight – nonspecific defense system
389
Innate defense
Nonspecific – first and second line of defense
390
First line of defense
Surface barriers
– skin
– mucous membranes
391
Second line of defense
```
–Phagocytes
– information
– antimicrobial proteins
– natural killer cells
– fever
```
392
Adaptive defense
Specific defense system – third line of defense
Humoral immunity-B cells – antibodies kill specific micro organisms
Cellular immunity – T cells
393
What is specific – adaptive immunity
Third line of defense, immunity is resistance to specific pathogen's or two there toxins are metabolic by Products
394
Cellularb immunity
T cells – direct response to the pathogen
395
Humoral immunity
B cells – and direct response to the pathogen through the use of antibodies that bind to antigens on the stage for repair of pathogen
396
Active immunity
Actively making antibodies – B lymphocytes produce antibodies in response to antigen from the pathogen
397
Natural active immunity
Exposure to infection – primary response
398
Artificial active
Vaccine – body is exposed to dead pathogen
399
Passive immunity
The body obtains antibodies from another source –
400
Natural passive immunity
Maternal antibodies to the fetus from mothers breastmilk
401
Artificial passive immunity
Gamma globulin surround created in a lab against antigens
402
What is HIV
Immunodeficiency disease where HIV destroys your helper T cells virus can generate 1000 copies of itself a day viral reproduction wears out post helper T cells and the cells die
403
What does HIV cause
A weekend immune system which causes AIDS
404
Aids
Patients susceptible to opportunistic infections and cancers
405
What are the four chambers in the heart
- Right and left atrium
| - right and left ventricles
406
What are the major valves of the heart
Tricuspid valve, bicuspid valve,hey Arctic valve, pulmonary valve
407
Trace a drop of blood through the heart
-superior/inferior vena cava
-right atrium
-through the tricuspid valve
– right ventricle
– through the pulmonary valve
– pulmonary trunk
– pulmonary arteries
– long capillaries
– pulmonary veins
– left atrium
– through the mitral valve/bicuspid valve
– left ventricle
– through the aortic valve
– Aorta
– body capillaries
– body veins
– vena cava
408
Trace the blood flow to and from the heart wall
Aorta
– right and left coronary artery
– anterior marginal artery, posterior side of the anterior mesentery artery, posterior circumflex, and anterior interventricular artery
– Capillaries to serve the mitochondrion
-used up blood goes to the coronary veins
– coronary sinus
– right atrium
409
Angina pectoris
Chest pain associated with ischemia (Reduced blood flow) is temporary
410
Myocardial infarction
Heart attack – result of from boatswain in the coronary artery's went to Shiba comes necrotic
Symptoms include long-lasting chest pain pain radiating down the left arm and neck
411
What is the major events in one cardiac conduction cycle
1. The SA node generates an impulse
2. atrial syncytium spread the impulse through the atria
3. Junctional fibers transmit impulses slowly to the AV node
4. The impulse is received by atrioventricular node
5. The atrioventricular node bundle conducts impulses through the interventricular septum
6. Purkinje fibers depolarize the contractile cells of both ventricles
7. Ventricular syncytium transmits impulses to cardiac muscle cells
412
Systole
Contraction of the heart
413
Diastol
Relaxation of the heart
414
What does the love sound correspond with
The sound of the atrioventricular valve closing
415
What does the dub sound correlate to
The closing of the semi lunar valves
416
Regulation of the cardiac cycle
The control center for cardiac cycle regulation is in the Medela oblongata using – cardioinhibitory center
– cardioacceleratory center
417
Parasympathetic regulation
Uses Vegas nerves that receives signals from the medulla oblongata
–SA and AV node to respond to acetylcholine
– increase and parasympathetic impulses slow the heart rate
– decrease and parasympathetic impulse increase the heart rate
418
Sympathetic regulation
Uses Exceller Tori nerves of the sympathetic nervous system
– SA and AV node's as well as other areas of mitochondria respond to norepinephrine
– increase in sympathetic impulses increase the heart rate and force the myocardial contractions
-One way only
419
What is the cardiac control center
Medulla oblongata
420
Barorecptors
Detect changes in the blood pressure located in the aorta and in the carotid artery's – used to detect high and low blood pressure and signal to the Medela oblongata
421
What does blood pressure represent
Systol/diastole
422
Where is blood pressure usually measured
And the brachial artery
423
Capillaries
Microscopic and one cell layer thick
– made of Tunica endothelium
–stabilized by supporting cells called pericytes
– only one red blood cell capacitor time
424
Veins
– Formed from converging venues
– have all three layers
Tunica intima, Tunica media, tunica externa
– blood pressure is lower
– contain valves sinuses and large diameters
425
Arteries
-Carry oxygenated blood
– larger in diameter
– smaller opening
426
What is hypotension and what are different types
Any condition in which blood vessels and adequately filled, and blood vessels cannot circulate normally – result in an adequate blood flow to meet tissue needs
427
What is Hypertension and the different types
Primary and secondary hypertension high blood pressure
428
Primary hypertension
No known cause
429
Secondary hypertension
Resulting from complication of known disease
| – usually heart, vascular or kidney disease
430
What is the treatment for hypertension
Step care approache
1. Change lifestyle – exercise, diet reduce salt, lose weight, stop smoking
2. Diuretics
3. drugs – beta blocker to increase vessel diameter
4. Drugs – Alpha blockers – decreased cardiac output
431
If hypertension is prolonged what can happen
Stroke and sometimes death
432
Types of circulatory shock
- hypovolemic shock-results from a large scale blood loss
- vascular shock – results from extreme vasodilation and decreased peripheral resistance
- Cardiogenic shock – results when an insufficient heart cannot sustain adequate circulation
433
What is normal blood pressure
115/75
434
Stroke volume
The amount of blood that enters the arteries from the ventricle equals 70 mL
435
Cardiac output
Is produced by the cardiac conduction system the average heart rate is 72 bpm 60 to 100 is normal
436
What is the equation for cardiac output
CO= SV*HR
437
How do you maintain normal blood pressure
By maintaining cardiac output and peripheral resistance
438
What is the pathway the air takes to go from the nasal cavity to the alveoli
```
-nasal cavity
– middle nasal conch
– pharynx
– lyrics
– trachea
– primary bronchi
– secondary bronchi
– tertiary bronchi
– interlobular bronchioles
– terminal bronchioles
– Respiratory bronchioles
– alveolar ducts
– alveoli
```
439
What are of you like and what do they secrete
Location of primary gas exchange
| – they secrete surfactant
440
How is surface tension involved with surfactant
It reduces surface tension of Avila fluid and discourages of you all are collapse
441
What condition results from collapse alveoli
Infant respiratory distress syndrome
442
External respiration
Exchange of gases between air and the alveoli/long and the blood
443
Internal respiration
Exchange of gases between the blood and body cells
444
Cellular respiration
Need to gases and produces gases – produces energy used by body cells from glucose and oxygen and create CO2 as a waste product
445
Inspiration
Gas is flow into the lungs
446
Expiration
Gas is flowing out of the lungs
447
Steps and inspiration
1.inspiratory muscles contract – diaphragm descends and the rib cage rises
2. Thoracic cavity volume increases
3. Lungs are stretched, enter pulmonary volume increases
4. Intrapulmonary pressure drops
5. Air flows into the Longs down his pressure gradient until equilibrates with atmospheric pressure
448
Steps in expiration
1. Inspiratory muscles relax – diaphragm rises rib cage descendants
2. Thoracic cavity volume decreases
3. elastic Longs recoil passably, intrapulmonary volume decreases
4. intrapulmonary pressure rises
5. Air flows out of the lungs down it's pressure gradient until it reaches equilibrium with the atmosphere
449
Title volume
Normal ventilation
450
Inspiratory reserve volume
Maximum volume of air that can be inhaled in addition to title volume
451
Expiratory reserve volume
Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled in addition to title volume
452
Residual volume
Volume of air that remains in the Longs at all times
453
Vital capacity
Maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after taking the deepest breath possible
VC = IRV + TV + ERV
454
Total lung capacity
Total volume of air that the Longs can hold
TLC= VC+RV
455
Control of respiration
Involves higher brain centers – Medela oblongata
456
What is the respiratory centers
Control centers – ventral respiratory group and dorsal respiratory group
457
Dorsal respiratory group
Tells VRG to either increase or decrease breathing rate based on information sent from the chemo receptors and peripheral stretch receptors
458
Ventral respiratory group
Dictates breathing rate is the rhythm generation center 12 to 15 bpm
459
Pontine respiratory group
Modify his breathing during speech, exercise, sleep
460
What are some factors that affect breathing
-increase partial pressure of carbon dioxide – decrease partial pressure of oxygen
- information reflects
– decreased peripheral resistance of carbon dioxide
461
O2 transportation
98.5% of diffused 02 is bound with Effy of hemoglobin with weak bonds known as oxyhemoglobin
rate of unloading/loading of O2 is influenced by
-amount of hemoglobin and oxygen
– temperature, pH, PCO2
–cellular respiration
462
The Bohr effect
Weekend of HB – 02 in the system and it capillaries as a result of increased temperature
– decrease pH will also release 02 from the HB – 02 bond
– increase in PCO2 makes carbonate acid which decreases the pH
463
Rhinitis
Common cold
464
Emphysema
Form of COPD where there is a breakdown in Alveolidecreasing service area which decreases external respiration
465
Atelectasis
Collapse long from the adhesion of every alveoli
– because of increase surface tension
– caused by complication of surgery
– also may develop cystic fibrosis or asthma
466
Pneumothorax
Collapse long by punctured to the thoracic cavity and pleura pressure increases in cavity which will cause long to decrease in volume
467
What organs are considered a sensory organs of the digestive system
Salivary gland's, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
468
List the organs and the alimentary canal in order
-mouth – pharynx – esophagus – stomach – small intestine – large intestine – rectum – anus
469
What enzymes are involved in chemical digestion and where does it take place
Amylase – in the mouth, breaks down starch to sugar
Lipase – in the small intestine – breaks down lipids to fatty acids
HCl and pepsin – in the stomach, breaks down protein two amino acids
470
What are the four layers of the alimentary canal
1. mucosa – innermost layer – protection, secretion, absorption
2. Submucosa – location of receptors – nourishes surrounding tissues, transports absorb materials
3. Muscle layer – location of receptors – movements of the tube and its contents
4. Serosa – outermost layer – for protection and lubrication
471
Where are the Mechanoreceptors receptors located in the alimentary canal
In the muscle layer
472
Where are the chemoreceptors located in the alimentary canal
In the submucosa
473
Where are the control centers of movement
1. The gut brain
| 2. The central nervous system
474
The gut brain
Enteric Plexes of nerves that serves as a control center for short reflexes
475
Myenteric plexus
Located in the muscle layer of the alimentary canal promotes peristalsis and segmentation
476
Sub mucosal plexus
Located in the submucosa promotes secretion by enzymes
477
Central nervous system control
Connects to the alimentary canal via the Vegas nerve – parasympathetic to control long reflexes
-Vegas nerve send acetylcholine to promote movement
– Sympathetic nervous system uses epinephrine to inhibit movement
478
What is Peristalsis
Rhythmic wave of smooth muscle contraction of longitude no muscles in the wall the alimentary canal to propel food forward
479
What is segmentation
Created by alternating contraction and relaxation of circular muscles of the alimentary canal to mix intestinal contents
480
How is gastric secretion regulated
Vagus nerve simulation equals secretion increased
Sympathetic stimulation equal secretion decreased
481
What are the components of gastric juice
1. hCl – secreted by the parietal cells in the gastric glands
2. Pepsinogen secreted by chief cells
3.pepsin the Cubs activated when Pepcid agent is mixed with HCl – breaks down proteins
4. Mucus – alkaline substance secreted from mucous cells to protect stomach lining from
HCL
5. Hormones – stomatostatin – inhibits secretion of juice and gastrin – activate secretion of juice
6. Intrinsic factor secreted by parietal cells and is needed for B 12 absorption
482
What are the major functions of the liver
- carbohydrate metabolism
- lipid metabolism
- Protein metabolism
- Storage
- blood filtering
- detoxification
- secretion
483
What are the three functions of the pancreas
Endocrine functions – secrete insulin and glucagon
Exocrine functions – secrete pancreatic juice, secrete bio carbonate ions
484
What is in pancreatic juice
Enzymes – amylase, lipase, protease and bicarbonate
485
What are the three sections of the small intestines and order
Deuodenum, jejunum, ilium
486
What are the function of the small intestines
Chemical digestion and the duodenum, chemical digestion throughout small intestine, absorption, transportation
487
What are some adaptations found in the small intestine that aid in the absorption by increasing surface area
Villa and Plicae
488
What are the parts of the large intestines and order
cecum, appendix, ascending colon,transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon, rectum,anal canal
489
What are the functions of the large intestine
1. Secretes mucus – protection against abrasive material
2. houses microbiota
3. Absorption of water, electrolytes, vitamins
4. Transportation of feces to anus
5. Defecation
