Exam 3 Flashcards
Respiration
Entire process of exchanging gases between the atmosphere and body cells
Ventilation
Breathing, moving of air in and out of the lungs
Inhalation
Movement of air into the lungs
Exhalation
Movement of air out of the lungs
External respiration
Exchange of gases between air and the alveoli/ lung and the blood
Internal respiration
Exchange of gases between the blood and the cells
Cellular respiration
Produces energy used by the body cells from glucose and oxygen and creates CO2 as a waste product
What parts make up the upper respiratory system?
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
What parts make up the lower respiratory system?
Trachea
Lungs
-left and right bronchus
Diaphragm
What is the nasal cavity made up of?
Conchae
Septum
Nostril
Nasal meatuses
Conchae
Ridges on the side of your nose
Septum
Cartilage between nostrils
Nostril
Opening
Nasal meatus
Grooves between the conchae
What are the functions of the nose/ nAsil cavity
- warms and moistens the air
- has hair to filter large particles
- mucous membrane produces mucus to trap small particles and potential pathogens
- olfactory receptors for smell
What are the sinuses
Frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, maxillary
What is the function of our sinuses
- Produce mucus
- reduces weight of the skull
- serves as a resonant chamber that affects the voice
Oral cavity and pharynx
Both are air passages in the respiratory system and both are food path ways in the digestive system
Nasopharynx
Part of the throat associated with nasal cavity
Oropharynx
Near the palatine tonsil
Laryngopharynx
In the throat
Rhinitis
Homeostatic imbalance of upper respiratory system aka cold
Larynx
Attaches to the hyoid bone, opens into the laryngopharynx, continues with the trachea
What Are the functions of the larynx
- provides patent airway
- routes air and food into proper channels
- voice production
- houses the vocal folds
What structure closes off the larynx when you swallow so food and liquid do not go into the respiratory track?
Epiglottis
Where are the vocal chords located?
At the opening of the larynx
Vocal folds
- True vocal chords
- Fold vibrate produce sound as air rushes up from the Longs.
Glottis
Opening between the vocal folds
What kind of tissue is vocal folds made of?
Made of elastin tissue
Vestibular folds
- superior to the vocal folds
- no part in sound production
- help to close Gladys during swallowing
What kind of tissue are vestibular folds made from?
Smooth muscle
What is an example of how the vocal folds act as a sphincter to prevent air passage?
Valsalva maneuver – the glottis closes to prevent exhalation, the abdominal muscles contract, intra-abdominal pressure rises, helps to empty rectum or stabilize his truck during heavy lifting.
Trachea
Runs from the lawyer next to mid sternum
- length= 12.5 cm
- diameter = 2.5 cm
Mucosa
Innermost layer of the trachea, made of ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium with goblet cells that produce mucus
What structures are needed to prevent the trachea from collapsing?
– 20 C shaped rings of hyaline cartilage
– Trachealis
– Corina
Trachealis
Smooth muscle to expel mucus
Corina
Complete ring of hyaline Cartlidge that connects the trachea to the right and left bronchi
Why are the rings of hyaline cartilage shaped like “c”
So that there is room for expansion if the food going down is larger than the opening
Respiratory zone
Site of gas exchange – microscopic structures equal respiratory Bronchioles, alveolar ducks, Alveoli
Conducting zone
Conduits to gas exchange
- includes all other respiratory structures
- cleans warms and humidifies air
Diaphragm and other respiratory muscles
Promote ventilation
Tracheostomy
And external opening into the trachea anywhere above the larynx.
When is a tracheostomy used?
– Severe anaphylactic shock
– when there is an obstruction in the pharynx/lyrics that blocks the airway. The temporary Extertal opening created allows air flow into the lungs.
Explain the left and right lung and regards to the bronchial tree. (Lobes)
Right lung – has three lobes -superior lobe of the right lung -middle lobe of the right lung -inferior lobe of the right lung Left lung – has two lobes -superior lobe of the left lung -Inferior lobe of the left lung
What are the terms of the bronchial tubes through the lungs?
- Intralobular bronchi
- Terminal bronchioles
- respiratory bronchioles
- alveolar duct which contains the Alveolar sack which contains the Alveoli
Alveoli
Primary gas exchange
Respiratory membrane
Alveolar and capillary walls and their fused basement membrane
- gas exchange across the membrane by simple diffusion with oxygen and carbon dioxide
Alveolar walls
Contain scattered cuboidal cells which secrete surfactant and antimicrobial protein to keep the Avenue your sacks open
What happens if you have an insufficient amount of surfactant
– Detergent produced by alveolar cells in the wall.
– reduces the surface tension of alveolar fluid and discourages alveolar collapse
Infant respiratory distress syndrome
Insufficient quantity of surfactant in premature infants. Alveoli collapse after each breath
Pleurae
Then double layered serosa
Devise the thoracis cavity into plural compartments and mediastinum
Parietal pleura
On the thoracic wall, superior face of diaphragm, around heart, between lungs
Visceral pleura
On external lung service
Pleural cavity
Provides lubrication and surface tension, assist in expansion and recoil
Lungs
Soft, spongy, cone shaped organ in the thoracic cavity.
-suspended from the primary bronchi, pulmonary arteries and pulmonary veins
What is the function of the lung
Houses the bronchial tree and the blood vessels, lymphatic system, and nervous system
How many loads are in the right lung?
Three
How many loads are in the left lung?
Two
What is the hilum of the lung
The root of the lung where the pulmonary artery and pulmonary vein enter the lung
What are the two phases of pulmonary ventilation
Inspiration and expiration
What are inspiration and expiration depend on
The diaphragm
Inspiration
Gas is flow into the lungs
-The volume will increase in the Longs and the pressure will decrease so the air will move into the lungs
Expiration
Gases exit the lungs
Boyles law
Pressure is dependent on volume – they are inversely proportional
What are the steps and inspiration
- Inspiratory muscles contract – the diaphragm descendants and the rib cage rises.
- Thoracic cavity volume increases
- Longs are stretched and intra-pulmonary volume increases
- Andra pulmonary pressure drops
- Gas is flow into the lungs down and pressure gradient until it equal liberates with ospheric pressure.
What are the steps and expiration?
- Inspiratory muscles relax – diaphragm rises rib cage descends due to recoil of coastal Cartlidge
- Thoracic cavity volume decreases
- Elastic lungs recoil passably, enter a pulmonary volume decreases
- Intrapulmonary volume rises
- Gas is flow out of the lungs down it’s pressure gradient until it reaches its equilibrium
What is taking a deep breath depend on?
- Use of pectoral muscle
2. Compliance threshold
Compliance threshold
The ease with which the Longs can expand
- compliance is high when the pressure in the lungs is low at the beginning of inspiration
- compliance is low when the pressure and the long is high at the end of inspiration and beginning of expiration
When is compliance high
At the beginning of inspiration, emphysema
When is compliance low
At the end of inspiration and the beginning of expiration, when there are obstructions in the airway, asthma, bronchitis
Tidal volume
500 ML
-normal ventilation
Inspiratory reserve volume
3100ml
-maximum volume of air that can be inhaled in addition to tidal volume
Expiratory reserve volume
1200ml
- maximum volume of air that can be exhaled in addition to tidal volume.
Residual volume
1200 ml
-volume of air that remains in the longs at all time
Inspiratory capacity
3600ml
-maximum volume of air that can be in hailed, following exhalation of title volume
Functional residual capacity
2400 ml
-volume of air that remains in the lungs following exhalation of resting volume
Vital capacity
4800 ml
-maximum volume of air that can be exhaled after taking deepest breath possible.
Total long capacity
6000 ml in adult male
-total volume of air that can be held by the lungs
Formula for vital capacity
VC= IRV+TV+ERV
Formula for total long capacity
TLC= VC+RV
Spirometer
Instrument for measuring respiratory volume and capacity.
Can’t distinguish between obstructive pulmonary disease and restrictive disorders
Obstructive pulmonary disease
Obstruction in the airway, increased airway resistance, example – bronchitis
Restrictive disorders
Reduced total long capacity due to disease or fibrosis – restrictions in the bronchi
Minute ventilation
The amount of new air moved into the respiratory passage each minute
What is the average breathing rate for an adult
12 breaths a minute
What is the average an MRV for an adult
6000 ML a minute
MRV
=TVxBreathing rate = 500mlx 12
What condition can be determined by calculating MRV
Hyperventilation equals MRV of 10 L/ min
Average I’d 6 L/min
Dead space
Anatomical that space, alveolar dead space
Anatomical dead space
In the larynx and trachea
- no contribution to gas exchange, air remaining in the passageways, does not affect overall ventilation
- ~150ml
Alveolar dead space
Nonfunctional alveoli
-due to collapse or obstruction, it raises residual volume, does affect title volume
Total dead space
Some of anatomical and alveolar dead space.
- only applies to people who have a pulmonary disorder
Is the MRV and effective tool to measure ventilation?
No
Non-respiratory movements
Our air movement created by methods not associated with ventilation
Examples of non-respiratory air movement
Yawning, burping, sneezing, coughing, speech, Valsalva maneuver
Control of respiration
Involves higher brain centers – the Medulla oblongata
Chemo receptors and other reflexes.
Respiratory centers
Control centers – ventral respiratory group, dorsal respiratory group
Ventral respiratory group
Dictate breathing rate
-is the rhythm – generation center
-12/15 breaths per minute
Uses inspiratory neurons to excite the inspiratory muscles(diaphragm)
* stimulated by phrenic nerve
*intercostal muscle - stimulated by intercoastal Nerf
- use expiratory neurons to inhibit inspiratory neurons
Dorsal respiratory group
Tells ventral respiratory group to either increase or decrease breathing rate based on information sent from the chemo receptors and peripheral stretch receptors
Pontine. Respiratory center
Modifies breathing during speech, exercise, sleep
Henry’s law
The partial pressure of a gas dissolved in a liquid equals the partial pressure of the gas in the air with which the liquid has equaliberated
What is atmospheric pressure
760 mm Hg
What is the percent of oxygen
20%
What is the formula for Henry’s law
Partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere =20% of 760=
What are the two types of digestion?
Mechanical and chemical
Mechanical digestion
Breakdown of large pieces of food into smaller ones without altering their chemical composition
What is an example of mechanical digestion?
Mastication
Chemical digestion
Breakdown of food particles into smaller chemicals using enzymes
Amalase
Insalata – breaks down starch to sugar
Lipase
In the small intestines – breaks down lipids to fatty acid’s and Glyceral
HCL and Pepsin
In the stomach – breaks down proteins to amino acids
What organs make up the alimentary canal
Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus
What organs are a sensory organs in the digestive system?
Salivary gland’s, liver, gallbladder, pancreas
What are the layers of the alimentary canal and order from inside out?
- Mucosa
- Submucosa
- Muscular layer
- Serosa
Mucosa
Protection, secretion, absorption
Submucosa
Nurses surrounding tissues, transports absorb materials, location of receptors
Muscular layer
Location of receptors, movements of the tube and its contents.
Serosa
Protection and lubrication
What are the two types of movement within the elementary canal?
- Peristalsis
- segmentation
Peristalsis
Rhythmic wave of smooth muscle contraction of longitudinal muscles in the wall of the alimentary canal to propel contents ford
Segmentation
Created by alternating contraction and relaxation of circular muscles of the alimentary canal to mix intestinal contents
What is the function of segmentation?which muscle group is used
To mix all the contents,Circular muscle
What is the function of Peristalsis what muscle group is important?
To move the food forward , longitudinal muscle
What receptors are needed for the movement of food?
There are two receptors
1) Mechanoreceptors
2) chemoreceptors
Mechanoreceptors
Located in the muscle layer and a tech stretching of the alimentary canal
Chemoreceptors
Located in the submucosa and a tech change in pH and osmolatity
What are the control centers for the movement of food?
There are two control centers
1) The gut brain
2) The central nervous system
The gut brain
Enteric plexus of nerves that serve as a control center for short reflexes
-myenteric plexus
located in the muscle layer of the alimentary canal – promotes Paris stylus and segmentation
Submucosal plexus
Located in the submucosa, promote secretion of enzymes
Central nervous system
K’NEX to the elementary canal be of the Vegas nerve – parasympathetic dash to control a long reflexes
Vagus nerve sends acetylcholine to promote movement
Sympathetic nervous system uses epinephrine to inhibit movement
What are the effectors
All of the organs and the alimentary canal
What is the difference in a short and a long reflex
A short reflects does not travel through the central nervous system whereas a long reflex must
Mouth
Receives food and begins digestion through the process of mastication (chewing) with teeth and then mixes food with saliva which breaks down starches. Also has a role in speech and sensory reception
Salivary gland
Produce most. Saliva, lie outside the oral cavity
What are a few of the major salivary gland
Parotid, submandibular, sublingual
Functions of saliva
Cleanse your mouth, dissolves food chemicals for taste, moistens food and compacts into bolus, begins breakdown of starch with amylase
How much saliva is produced
1500 mL/day
Where is the parotid gland located
A large gland located in your cheek near your ear
Where is the submandibular gland located
At the bottom of your chin at the base of your neck
Where is the sublingual gland located
At the base of your tongue, houses the submandibular duct
What is a bolus?
A mass of already chewed food, becomes a bolus at the point of swallowing.
How is a bolus swallowed?
There are three parts to the swallowing process
1) Buccal Phase
2) pharyngeal esophageal phase part A
3) pharyngeal esophageal phase part B
Buccal phase of swallowing
Voluntary movement – food converted into bolus, tongue moves bolus against hard palate which pushes food into the oropharynx.
Pharyngeal – esophageal phase part a
Involuntary movement – Medela oblongata control the soft palate, uvula, and tongue to prevent food from coming up the nasopharynx. The upper esophageal sphincter relaxes allowing the food to enter the esophagus and the epiglottis moves down to cover the larynx.
Pharyngeal – esophageal phase of swallowing part B
Involuntary movement – the constrictor muscles of the pharynx contract forcing food into the esophagus. The upper esophageal sphincter contracts and closes after food enters ending swallowing.
Where does the bolus travel after the swelling process has ended?
After swallowing, food is transported through the esophagus. Pissed off I guess fits through the esophageal hiatus and the diaphragm.
What are Ruege
They are folds Hughes to Discenza stomach when Bolis comes in and has smooth muscle for mechanical digestion
What are the four parts of the stomach and where are they located?
- Cardia – inferior to the Gastro esophageal sphincter
- Fundus-The top portion of the stomach
- Body – the main part of the stomach
- Pylorus – the ending portion of the stomach, leads up to the pyloric sphincter
What do you think is happening to a patient with hypertrophic pyloric stenosis?
Increase in tissue within the pyloric canal
Lesser omentum
Extension of the peritoneum that attaches to the liver into the stomach. Posterior side
Greater Omentum
Extension of the peritoneum passing from the stomach to the transverse colon, hanging like an apron in front of the intestines
Mesentery
Extension of the peritoneum from the posterior wall and attaches to the intestinal track. Attaches and holds intestine in place
What are the major components of gastric juice?
- HCl
- Pepsinogen
- Pepsin
- Mucus
- Hormones
- Intrinsic factor
HCL
Secreted by the parietal cells and the gastric glands
Pepsinogen
Secreted by chief cells, precursor to the protease Pepsin
Pepsin
The comes activated when pepsinogen is mixed with HCl, this enzyme breaks down proteins for chemical digestion
Mucus
Alkaline substance secreted from mucus next cells to coat the inside of the stomach to protect the stomach lining from HCl
Hormones
Secreted by endocrine cells
- stomatostatin-inhibits secretion of juice
- gastric- activates secretion of juice
Intrinsic factor
Secreted by the parietal cells and is needed for vitamin b12 absorption
What causes ulcers?
Too much acidity in the stomach
Regulation of Gastric secretion
- Gastric mucosal – up to 3 L of gastric juice per day
- neural and hormonal mechanisms
- vagus nerve stimulation - secretion increases of gastric juice-parasympathetic – increases parastolsis
- sympathetic stimulation – secretion decreases
Chyme
Bolus that has gone through the stomach, becomes chyme once it enters the small intestine.
Enterogastric Reflex
The rate at which the stomach empties its contents into the small intestine is dependent on the fluidity of time and the type of food
What are the steps of enterogastric reflex
1) chyme enters the small intestine
2) volume of chyme depends of the intestinal wall and activates the stretch receptors
3) reflex is initiated and signal sent to the CNS
4) vagus nerve is inhibited from stimulating stomach wall
5) peristalsis of the stomach is slowed and intestinal filling is diminished
How long does chyme stay in the stomach?
4-5 hours on average
What is the largest internal organ
Liver
What causes Nassau/ vomiting
Stimulus – drugs, toxins, changes in body position/motions, emotional and stimulating of the back of the pharynx
Where is the liver located?how is it attached?
In the upper right quadrant of the Abdominal cavity. The coronary ligament attaches the liver to the diaphragm on its superior surface
What is a hepatic lobule
The hexagon shaped cell that makes up the liver
What is the role of the portal Triad?
Composed of the bile duct, portal venule, portal arterial it supplies nutrients to other areas.
Bile duct
Receives bile that is produced from the hepatic cells using bile canaliculi
Portal venule
Supplies nutrients to the hepatic lobe Eules from the attic portal vein
Portal arterial
Supplies oxygen- hepatic artery
What are the major functions of the liver
Carbohydrate metabolism, lipid metabolism, protein metabolism, storage, blood filtering, detoxification, secretion
Capillaries
Sinusoids- contain fenestrations and clefts that allow for movement of cells and proteins in and out of the hepatic lobule
Where is bile produced
In the liver
What does bile contain
Water, electrolytes, cholesterol, bile salts, bile pigments
Bile salts
Help with making a lipid soluble in water. By forming an emulsion
Emulsion
Bring fat into water so that fat can be digested
Bile pigments
Can indicate the presence of disease
Gallstones
Consist of cholesterol, bilirubin, and calcium when in excess
What is jaundice and what our causes of jaundice?
Bile pigments in skin and eyes, this means it is not excreted properly through the do addendum which causes the jaundice-liver is not functioning properly
What are the functions of the gallbladder
- Store bile between meals
- concentrates filed by reabsorbing water
- contracts to release bile into the small intestine
Where is bile stored
In the gallbladder
What are the functions of the pancreas
There are both endocrine and exocrine functions of the pancreas
Endocrine functions of the pancreas
Pancreatic islets secrete insulin and glucagon
Exocrine functions of the pancreas
- acini secrete pancreatic juice to duodenum via the main pancreatic duct.
- duck cells secrete bio carbonate ions when pancreatic juice is released
Biocarbonate ions
Made by a different cell but appear as a part of the pancreatic juice
What are the components of pancreatic juice
Enzymes for chemical digestion and bicarbonate to neutralize the acidic chyme
What enzymes are in pancreatic juice and what do they act on
Amylase – carbs
Lipase – lipids
Protease – proteins
How is the pancreas regulated
Via the parasympathetic nervous system – signal the pancreas to release pancreatic juice during the cephalic and gastric phase occurring in the stomach and duodenum
CCK
Induces secretion of enzyme rich pancreatic juice by acini
Secretin
Causes secretion of bio carbonate Rich pancreatic juice by duct cells
Pancreatic juice regulation as part of bile secretion regulation
- Chyme enters the duo denim causing the release of CCK and secretin.
- CCK and secretin into the bloodstream
- CCK causes gallbladder to contract and hepatopancreatic sphincter to relax. Bile enters the duodenum.
- During cephalic and gastric phases, vagal nerve stimulates gallbladder to contract weakly.
- CCK and secretin transported via the bloodstream stimulate liver to produce bile more rapidly
What are the three sections of the small intestine and order
Duodenum, jejunum, ileum
What are the functions of the small intestine
- Chemical digestion in duodenum
- Chemical digestion and small intestine
- Absorption
- Transportation
Chemical digestion in the duodenum
Result of chyme mixing with bile and pancreatic juice
Chemical digestion
Occurs along small intestine has enzymes in bedded in the intestinal wall
Transportation ever made a waste to large intestine
3 to 10 hours to move by segmentation/peristalsis
What is absorption
The passage of nutrients from the lumen of the small intestine into the bloodstream or lymphatic system throughout the villi of the mucosa layer in the small intestine
What are some adaptations found in the small intestine the aid in the absorption by increasing surface area
Villi and Plicae
What are three primary nutrients absorbed by the small intestine and needed for cellular metabolism
Carbohydrates - sugar
Fats – fatty acids and glycerol
Proteins – amino acids
What are the three parts of the large intestine and order
Ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon, sigmoid colon
What are the functions of the large intestine
- Secretes mucus
- Microbiota
- Absorption
- Transportation
- Defecation
What does the secretion of mucus do in the large intestine
Protection against abrasive material, mucus acts as a binding agent for feces, and neutralizes acid
Microbiota
Your intestinal flora
Absorption in the large intestine
Of water, electrolytes and vitamins
Transportation and the large intestine
Of feces to the anus
Segmentation in large intestine
Hay strap contractions enhance water absorption
Mass Peristalsis in the large intestine
Entire content moves 2 to 3 times a day – regulated by a reflex called gastrocolic reflex
Gastrocolic reflex
The feeling of the stomach – causes movement in the: – using your enteric plexus to signal parasympathetic nervous system – short signal
Defecation
Bal movement regulated by reflex
Defecation reflex
- Feces move into and descendent from rectum, stimulating stretch receptors there. The receptors transmit signals along a ferret fibers to spinal cord neurons
- A spinal reflexes indicated in which parasympathetic motor fibers stimulate contraction of the rectum and sigmoid colon, and relaxation of the internal anal sphincter
- If it is convenient to defecate voluntarily motor neurons are inhibited allowing External anal sphincter to relax so feces may pass
What are nutrients used for
Cellular metabolism
Anabolic
Reactions include cell structures and molecular synthesis
Catabolic reactions
Reactions include the process to make metabolic fuel therefore nutrients are stored energy which is measured in kilocalories
Macronutrients
Lipids, proteins, carbohydrates
Nutrients needed by the body in large quantities
Micronutrients
Vitamins, minerals
Nutrients needed by the body in small quantities
Essential nutrients
Omega facts, certain amino acids
Nutrients that human cells cannot synthesize
Metabolic rate
Total heat produced by chemical reactions and mechanical work a body
How is metabolic rate measured
Directly –calorimeter measures heat liberated into water chamber
Indirectly – rest borrow meter measures oxygen consumption – directly proportional to heat production
What is the unit of heat that nutritious use in measuring potential energy and food
One calorie equals 1 k calorie
What is basal metabolic rate
Reflects energy body needs to perform its most essential activities per hour. Measured during post absorb it to state and is influenced by body surface area, age, gender, body temperature, stress
What is energy balance
When energy intake and energy output is equal
What is positive energy balance
Energy input is greater than output – gain weight
What is negative energy output
Energy output is greater than and put Dash lose weight
What is BMI
Body mass index
Weight in pounds X 705/height in inches squared
What is considered overweight on the BMI
A BMI of 25 to 30
What is considered obese by the BMI
A BMI greater than 30
Malnutrition
Poor nutrition that results from lack of essential nutrients or inability to utilize them
Marasmus
Caused by a lack of nutrients, results in extreme weight-loss where patients resent ball living skeleton’s
Kwashiorkor
Protein starvation causes lack of plasma proteins, fluid accumulates in abdominal cavity
Anorexia and bulimia
Self induced starvation due to mental disease
How is your appetite regulated
Insulin, leptin, neuropeptide Y,ghrelin
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose by stimulating adipocyte to uptake glucose
Leptin
Secreted by adipocytes, travel to hypothalamus to suppress the release of neuropeptide y
Neuropeptide Y
Used to stimulate eating – works through cephalic phase of gastric juice secretion
Ghrelin
Secreted from stomach to stimulate neuropeptide Y
What is the postabsorptive state
After digestion and I’m sorption maintaining glucose levels
What organ needs glucose
The brain
Fats, proteins cannot pass the blood brain barrier
Glycogenolysis
Breaking down glycogen to release glucose in the blood
Gluconeogenesis
Conversion of proteins and lipids into glucose or cellular respiration intermediates
Fat cannibalism
Lipolysis-uses lipase to make Weiser all and fatty acid
Proteins
Must undergo the immunization removal of amines
Remaining part is used to make either glucose/ acetyl
What is the body’s preference and macro nutrients for energy production
- Glucose
- Lipids
- Proteins
What happens during starvation
- body will utilize fat/protein during starvation as a result of no glucose
- Both proteins and lipids are converted into acetyl-CoA this gets converted into Keytones
- keytones are produced in the liver but in excess move to blood