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Botany > Final > Flashcards

Final Flashcards

1
Q
  1. Subject and disciplines of botany. The comparison of plants and animals.
A

-Diciplines of botany: 1. Phytochemistry, 2. Phytomorphology, 3.Cytology of plants, 4.Plants systematics, 5.Plant physiology, 6.Ecology of plants, 7.Phytogeografy, -coenology, 7.Medical botany, 9.Veterinarmedicianal botany
Comparison:
-A. has outer mambrane, p.has plasmalemma, tonopast, cell wall, plastids, vacuoles and -system.
-A. is heteotrophic w.digestive system and enzymes, p.is autotrophic, saprophytic, half-parasitic, paasitic, symbiotic.
-Growth: a.reach a peak then slowly decrease, p.increase sigmoidly.
-A.has sensory organs and nervous system, p.has taxism, tropism and phototropism.
-A.has sexual organs, gametes and zygotes, p.has 2 phases(n and 2n).

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2
Q

2.Denomination of the plants(binomiale nomenclature). The species. The taxanomial categories.

A
  • Kingdom->phylum->class->order->family->genus->species->subspecies->varietas->forma
  • Binomial names: genus+species
  • Taxonomial categores:
    a) Subsp.: genetic diff.+ecolog.diff.
    b) Variety: genetic diff., no ecolog.diff.
    c) Form: genetic diff for some properties, no ecolog. diff.
  • Naming species: Describing, Charachteristics of organs, Phenology time of flowering, Size, Ecology, Duration of life, Geographical and ecological occurance, Person´s names, Use
  • Names of genera: Greek origin, Greek or latin folk’s names, From mythology, Possibility of use, Geographical origin, of persons
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3
Q
  1. The plant cell: membranes, ER, mitochondrion, Golgi, nucleus
A
  • Membrane function: isolate the plasmatic spaces, permeability and uptake/downtake of substances.
  • Plasmalemma: outer layer of plant cells. Roles: uptake of materials, electron transport, cell wall synthesis, reception of hormones, synthetic function.
  • Tonoplast: Vacuole membrane. Roles: protonpumps, pH-value.
  • ER: tepenoids. Types: granular-rough(ribosomes) and smooth. Functions: synthetic, accumulation, transport.
  • Golgi: membrane particles. Function: Packaging of proteins, excretion, enzyme activity, high amino acid conc., electron transport, pectin synthesis.
  • Mitochondrion: Role is respiration. Have genetical independence.
  • Nucleus: DNA, RNA, proteins. In plants; polyploidity. Regulate genetic material.
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4
Q
  1. The plant cell; cell wall
A
  • Plant have strong cell wall except gametes, zoospores and protoplast.
  • Components of primary; structure-elements, matrix-elements, incrusting materials, adcrusting materials, mineral components.
  • Cellulose
  • Ligning
  • Pectine
  • Protein
  • Cutin, waxes
  • Function: protection, counteract osmotic pressure, skeletal, growth and development.
  • Plasmodesmata; pores.
  • Thickinings to increase water transport and mechanical stability; inner-centripetal and outer-centrifugal.
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5
Q
  1. The plant cell; plastids and the system of vacuoles
A
  • Plastids; only in plant cell.
  • Chloroplast: green. Photosynthesis.
  • Chromoplast: colour from carotenoids. Draw insects during pollination. Types; globular, fibrillar and christallic.
  • Leucoplast: without pigments. Types; proteinoplast, amiloplasts, oleicplasts.
  • Vacuoles; Provacuoles unite and form a central vacuole.
  • Function: protection, storage of metabolic products, osmotic potential.
  • Composition:
    1. Production of primary metabolism, amino acids, proteins, lipids etc.
    2. Intermediers: organic+inorganic compounds.
    3. Production of secondary metabolism: Sacharids, alkaloids, policetids, terpenoids, phenoloids.
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6
Q

6.Secondary plant metabolities (def., groups, examples)

A
  • Prod. products for growth and development of plant, but not necessary for survival.
  • Products:
  • Phenoloids: Flavanoids(Red clover)
  • Sacharides: Mustardoil glucosides(Mustard), Cyanogen glycosides(Flax, Sorghum sp.)
  • Terpenoides: cardiac glucosides(Foxglove sp.), saponins(saponaria)
  • Polyketides: Eruc acid(Brassica)
  • Azotids(N-containing-Amines, amides and alkaloides): Methyl amina(mercurialis), Lisine fam.(Lupinus sp.)…
  • Examples: flower pigments and scents, stabilizing elements.
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7
Q

7.Plant oils (groups)

A
  • Esters and triglycerides
  • Source of essential fatty acids
  • Important oil crops: glyxine max, brassica napus, helianthus annuus, arachis hypogea, cannabis sativa
  • Groups:
  • Drying oils: Flax, opium poppy
  • Semi-drying oils: Sunflower, rapeseed, white mustard and soya bean
  • Non-drying oils: Ricinus (Ricin-very toxic)
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8
Q

8.The plant tissues (def., origin, groups)

A
  • Tissue: group of cells with same origin, function and similar structure.
  • Differentiation: Embryo->division of cells – stops.
  • Lower plant(mosses, algas) have no tissue
  • Plant tissues:
    1. Meristematic tissue, and
    2. mature tissue(non-dividing):
  • epidermis system
  • transport
  • ground tissue system: for photosynt., storage, secretion and mech.stability
  • Simple tissue: Homogen, one cell type.
  • Complex tissue: Heterogen, two or more cell types.
  • Embryonic tissues: Dividing. Meristem: embryonic cells of the mature plants
  • Subtypes (according to position in the axis):
  • -Primary (apical) meristem
  • -Secondary (lateral) meristem
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9
Q
  1. Meristematic tissue
A

-Active, plasma containing cells. Dense cytoplasm and thin cell wall.
-Intense metabolism and high enzyme activity
-Cuticula on upper epidermis(protection and isolation).
-Function: cell division
Root:
-Prim.meristem: arise in embryonic tissue
*Apical(in stems and roots): Gives rise to prim. meristem. Composed of promeristems, histogens, protodermis, ground meristem, procambium and calyptrogen.
-Shoot meristem: Apical divided in tunica and corpus.
*Tunica: prod. additional surface meristem
*Corpus: adds bulks to the shoot meristem
*As a shoot grows, buds are made.
-Stem and shoot are produced from 3 derivitative meristem tissues:
*Protoderm-for epidermis
*Ground meristem-ground tissue->cortex->pith
*Procambium-vascular tissues, xylem and phloem
Stem:
-Prim. stem struvture: procambium forms a cylinder with ground meristem interior and procambium cylinder exterior. Protoderm is outer layer. Procambium extend out into leaf primordia(leaf traces).

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10
Q
  1. Epidermis system
A
  • Function: protection, transpiration(stomatas), photosynthesis(stomatas), uptake of materials(root)
  • Primary:
  • Stomatas: Intercellular spaces. Plasma rich/non-rich. Types: spherical(moses), eliptical(pine trees), Amaryllis(dicots/monocots), dumbell shape(grasses). Regulates water content, light/darkness, temp. and K+-conc.
  • Rhysodermis: epidermis of the root. No cuticula, no stomatas, root hairs for uptake. Many(billions) in one plant.
  • Sec.epidermal s.: growth of thickness, causes disorganisation of epidermis and develope a sec.protecting structure. Paracambium prod. phellom, a multi.layer tissue without cytoplasm (cork material).
  • Tert.epidermal s.: Rhytidoma. Paracambium in action, phloem elements can be on surface.
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11
Q
  1. Vascular (transport) system.
A
  • Xylem (hadrom): Water transport
  • Phloem (leptom): Organic materials
  • Elements of xylem: (root to plant)
  • Tracheids: water transporting cells
  • Tracheas: Water transporting tubes.
  • Xylem parenchyma: Living cells with plasma content. Storage of some substances.
  • Xylem fibres: Non living elements. Thick cell wall=> mechanical stability and protection.
  • Elements of phloem: (plant to root)
  • Sieve cells: Like tracheids–sugars from the leaves. Transport of organic material, slow transport.
  • Sieve tubes/plates: Like trachea tube. Perforated–pores.
  • Sieve parenchyma: Like the xylem parenchyma. Helping cells in the transport. Contain large nuclei, nucleoli and mitochondria, ER.
  • Sieve fiber: No cytoplasm, protection.
  • Cambiform cell: Living.
  • Vascular bundle: Cylindrical structure: Ring of phloem, ring of xylem->annual rings(trees). Herbaceous plants *Simple/Compound
  • Types of compound:
  • Collateral, closed bundle (monocots)–lacks cambium, no separating tissue.
  • Collateral, open bundle (dicots)–thin cambium layer, essential for prod. of new cells.
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12
Q

12.Ground tissue system.

A
  • Parenchymatic: high plasma content, no thickening, site of major life processes, types:
  • Assimilation (clorenchyma) – site of photosynthesis.
  • Storage: in seeds, rhizomes, and roots.
  • Water storage: for succulents, in the cytoplasm and cell walls of roots, stems, and leaves.
  • Aerenchyma: for water plants, air chambers with crystals (for stability).
  • Mechanical:
  • Collenchyma: living cells with thickenings, found in stems and petioles, increases stability.
  • Sclerenchyma: non-living cells with woody walls, lack cytoplasm
  • Tissues for secretion:
  • Into the environment: glandular hairs, nectars, hidatodes
  • Into inner spaces: lactifers prod. milk solutions
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13
Q

13.Root, root system, modified roots.

A
  • Functions: Anchorage, Uptake, Storage, Excretion, Synthesis, Reproduction
  • Types of systems:
  • Tap root (dicots): large main root w. branching lat. roots.
  • Fibrous root (monocots): epicotyl and mesocotyl derived.
  • Types of root:
  • True roots.
  • Adventive roots: all parts of plant (rhizomes, stolons, runner)
  • Modified roots:
  • -storage
  • -tubes: symbiotic or mycorrhiza
  • -aerial roots: true, climbing or supporting
  • -roots for respiration: Pneumatophora-air roots, grow upwards out of the water
  • -Sucker: penetrates host’s vascular bundles (e.g. Mistletoe).
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14
Q

Topic 14: Histology of root

A
  • Regions:
  • Root cap-calyptra.
  • Zone of cell division-apical meristem, produces rhizoids, cortex, vascular cylinder, and calyptra).
  • Zone of elongation.
  • Zone of maturation – rhizodermis (root hairs).
  • Cross section:
  • Rhizodermis – root hairs.
  • Epidermis – outer.
  • Cortex (with inner endodermis).
  • Central cylinder (stele) – pericambium, simple bundles (phloem and xylem), and pith tissue..
  • Formation of lateral roots: swelling of pericambium, roots break thorugh cortex and endodermis.
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15
Q

Topic 15: Shoot system, stem, types of stem, stem modifications

A
  • Function: nutrition and reprod.
  • Shoot system: cormus + appendages
  • Bud(Gemma): Axis of bud, Nodus, Internodium, Shoot apex, Leaf primordium (initiatives), Bud scale.
  • Tissue structure of the bud: Tunica, Corpus, Leaf, Primordium
  • Types of bud
    a) Position: Apical bud, lateral, axillary buds
    b) Functions: leaf bud, flower bud, mixed bud
    c) Character: normal, dormant (sleeping), adventitive buds
  • Stem: axis of shoot system.
  • Function: storage and transport of different substances.
  • Types:
  • Woody:
  • -Acrotonic branching-tree: Monocot, mixed, dicot
  • -Basitonic branching-shrubs: Semifrutex, frutex, climbing frutex
  • Hebaceuous
  • Shoot modifications:
  • Underground: Rhizome, stolon, bulbus, tuber
  • Overground: Succulent, runner, tendril, spine, phillocladium, tuberculum, bulbi
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16
Q

Topic 16: Histology of stem

A

Outer to inner layer: Epidermis, Cortex, Central cylinder
-Epidermis: Unicellular. Protection. Usually has cutin layer.
-Cortex: Parenchymatical, loose. Clorenchym is common. Supporting: Hypoderm, collenchym and sclerenchym.
Last cell layer: Endodermis = starch containing bundle.
-Central cylinder(stele):
a) Vascular tissue: in rings or in bundles.
b) Pith: parenchymal tissue-uniform tissue between the vascular bundles
c) Periciklus (not all sp.): Sclerenchymatical ring or elements of primary phloem.
-(picture)Monocot and dicot stem
-(picture)Tree with xylem and phloem

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17
Q

Topic 17: Thickenings of the stem, annual ring

A

-Types of thickenings:
a)Tilia type: phloem and xylem ring form annual ring.
From inside->out: Xylem, cambial and phloem ring
b)Ricinus type: Coherent function in bundles
c)Sunflower type: cambium ring->primary and secondary bundles.
d)Aristolochia type: Loose structure of bundles is remained.
-Xylem: Elements wide in spring, later smaller. Smallest during the autumn.
-Annual ring: an early part in spring, a late part in autumn.
-Conifers: No tracheas and fibers. Main component is tracheids. The structure is flat = Homoxyl.
-Dediduous trees: Tracheids, tracheas, parenchymatic cells, xylem fibers and pith rays = Heteroxyl.

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18
Q

Topic 18: Leaf (types, morphology, histology)

A
  • Types:
    a) Cotyledon: Seed leaf. Storage. Monocot or dicot.
    b) Underleaf: Protection and storage.
    c) True leaf: Photos., transp. and gass-exchange.
    d) Overleaf: Protection and support.
    e) Flowerleaf: Floral leaves, stamen and pistil.
    f) Leaflets: simpe/compound(pinnate, palmate, heterophylla)
  • Parts of the leaf: Shoulder, vein, apex, margine, lamina-blade, petiolus-stem, fundus-base.
  • Venetion of leaf: Pattern of veins. Dichotomic, Parallel or netted.
  • Heterophylly–floating leaves.
  • Distribution of leaves: Alternate(one leaf/node), Opposite (2 leaf/node opposite to each other), Whorled (on each node there are 3 or more leaves).
  • Phyllotaxis: nr. of turns on spirals (fibonacci series)
  • Tissue structure:
    a) Homogen leaf: 1 layer containing spongy parenchym and vascular bundles. Great metabolic activity.
    b) Bifacial (dorsiventral): 2 layers, palisad parenchym (upper) and spongy parenchym (lower with stomatas)
    c) Isolateral: 3 layers, palisad – spongy – palisad parenchym. Stomatas are in special chambers to reduce
    d) Pine needle: stomata, large cuticle, surrounds parenchymal layer with resin canals, starch containing cells and central vascular bundles.
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19
Q

Topic 19 - Sexual organs of plants (flower, inflorescens)

A
  • Organization:
  • Unisexual, monoecious plants: separate male and female, same plant.
  • Unisexual, dioecious plants: separate male and female, different plant.
  • Symmetry of flowers: Radial, Bilateral, Dorsoventa (Zigomorf) or Asymmetri.
  • Perianth: leaves; protection and pollination
  • Calyx: sum of sepals
  • Corolla: sum of petals
  • Perigonium: Sum of the tepals
  • Androeceum: stamens
  • Microsporogenesis: form. of microspores inside the pollen sacs
  • Pollengrain: vegetative (non-reproductive) cells and a generative (reproductive) cell. Two nuclei: a tube nucleus and a generative nucleus.
  • Gymnoceum: Sum of carpells (female reproductive organ)
  • Ovule formation
  • Macrosporogenesis: Macrospore-mother cell->4 haploid macrospores->3 will be destroyed, one survive
  • Inflorescence: group of flowers on a stem
  • Sole – ancient plants without inflorescence.
  • Single bud – simple, flowers on axis (raceme or cyme)
    a) Simple: Raceme, spike, corymb, umbel, spadix, flower head, catkin
    b) Compound: Homoiotactical–same type or Heterotactical–different type.
  • Pollination:
    a) Autogamy, self-pollination
    b) Allogamy, cross-pollination
    c) Xenogamy, between flowers of different individuals
    d) Bastardogamy – between species, genera.
  • Fertilization: Higher plants have DOUBLE fertilization
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20
Q
  1. Seed, fruit
A

-Seed: Embryo, endosperm, and seed coat (integuments) around them.
-Seed types:
o With endosperm (poppy or corn).
o With perisperm (corncockle).
o With endosperm and perisperm (cannabis).
o With great cotyledon.
-Fruit: Seed + fruitwall = Fruit
-Structure of the pericarp, can be exokarpium, mezokarpium or endocarpium
-Fruit types (true or pseudo, single, aggregate, or multiple, dry or fleshy, dehiscent or indehiscent):
o Single:
*Dry dehiscent: Follicle. Legume. Siliqua. Capsule.
* Dry, indehiscent: Grain crop (caryopsis). Nut.
*Fleshy: Berry. Peponium. Pom (apple). Hesperidium (orange).
o Aggregate: (raspberry)
o Pseudo: Hips.
o Multiple: Mullberry and fig fruit.
-Spreading:
a)Spread by water – Hydrochor plants
b)Spread by wind – Anemochor plants
c)Spread by animals – Zoochor plants
d)Spread by own mechanism – Dinamochor plants
e)Spread by humans – Antropochor: Agriculture, handel etc.

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21
Q
  1. Taxonomy of plants: algae, lichens, mosses
A
  1. Cyanophyta (blue algas): Procaryotes. Chlorophylls. E.g.: Nostoc (Nitrogen-fixating) and Microcystis (toxic)
  2. Euglenophyta (yellow green algas): Eucaryotes. Chloroplast and mobile flagellum. E.g. Euglena viridis.
  3. Chrysophyta (golden brown algas):
    a) Class Xantophyceae: stemlike and rootlike parts
    b) Class Crysophaceae.
    c) Class Bacillariophyceae: Thick cell wall, a lot silica oxide.
  4. Pyrrophyta: Order: Peridiniales. Body projections for water transport.
  5. Chlorophyta (green algas):
    a) Class Chlorophyceae; Order Volvocales: colony, but no symbiosis.
    b) Order Ulotrichales. Class Conjugatophyceae. Class Charophyceae.
  6. Pheophyta (brown algae): E.g. Fucus
  7. Rhodophyta (red algae): Lives only in cold water. E.g. Gelidum spp.
  8. Lychenophyta (lichens): symbiotic
  9. Bryophyta (mosses): no tissues. Has one haploid and one diploid part. Class Hepaticopsida. Class Bryopsida.
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22
Q
  1. Taxonomy of plants: Pteridophyta, Gymnospermatophyta,vascular
A

Phylum:
1.Pteridophyta (Ferns = ormbunkar):
a)Class Lycopsida, fam: Lycopodiaceae
b) Class Sphenopsida, e.g. Horsetails
c) Pteropsida: ferns, e.g. Pteridium aqulinium
2.Gymnospermatophyta
Caracteristics:
*No double fertilization.
*Bad protection on seed–not a real fruit.
*Reduced and unimportant perianth.
*The flower is mainly unisexual.
*Pollination w. wind.
*Pollengrain is coming from the ovules.
*Testa is hard but simple.
*Vegetative: all are woody, simple xylem and no sieve tube.
a)Class Ephedropsida: e.g. Ephedra dystachia
b)Gingkopsida: Gingko biloba
c)Conipheropsida: fam: Araucariaceae, Cupressaceae, Taxodiaceae, e.g.:Sequoia, Abietaceae (E.g.Pinus silvestris). Order Taxales, fam: Taxaceae.

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23
Q
  1. General characterisation of Angyospermatophyta
A
  1. Double fertilization – triploid endosperm
  2. Well developed protection o.t. seed – Real fruits
  3. Double Perianth, coloured flower
  4. Bisexual flowers
  5. Pollination w. animals
  6. Pollengrain is coming to style
  7. Testa is not strong
  8. Vegetatives: majority is herbaceous, complicated xylem, sieve tube exist
24
Q
  1. The class Dicotyledonopsida (general properties)
A
  • Dicot:
  • 2 cotyledons.
  • Stem is rich branched.
  • Has sec. growth.
  • Variated leaves w. reticulate veins.
  • Modified to a sheat, paralell veins.
  • Taprot system.
  • Woody and herb plants.
25
Q
  1. The class Monocotyledonopsida (general properties)
A
  • Monocot:
  • 1 cotyledon.
  • Stem is little branched.
  • No sec. growth.
  • Simple leafs, base is modified to a sheat, paralell veins.
  • Fibrous root system.
  • Herbs.
26
Q
  1. Physiology of water uptake of plants
A
  • Uptake/downtake: Water is taken up by the roots
  • Diffusion: A passive proc., no energy req.
  • Osmosis: Passive, the change of conc. on the diff. sides of a membrane. Equation: П = c * R*T, П=osmotic press, c=conc., R=gas constant.
  • Plasmolysis: the decr. of cytoplasm caused by changes in ionconc. It is reversible–deplasmolysis
  • Turgor press.: the tension on a cel wall due to the press. of water inside the cell. Equation: S = P(П) – T, S=Drawing force, P=Osmotic press., T=Turgor press.
  • Water potential: the sum of the osmotic pressure, the pressure potential and the matrix potential.
27
Q
  1. Transpiration and evapotranspiration of plants
A
  • Transpiration: Upward movement in the xylem due to the water potential gradient caused by release of water from the leaves.
  • Types: Cuticule or stomatas ( can be open or close)
  • Evaporation: Water loss from a non-biological surface
  • Evapotranspiration: The sum of water loss from plants and soil.
  • Petrasovics’ equation: ET = kTr, k=biotechnical const., T=average daily temp, r=a coefficient of actual and possible sunlight
28
Q
  1. Uptake mechanisms of plants, ion uptake
A

-Place of uptake: by roots(water and watersoluted materials) and by leaves (CO2).
1) Passive: passive permeation or catalysed permeation
2) Active proc.: Req. energy. Transport sugars, amino acids, vitamins etc.
o Double ion uptake – conc. incr. over, but slows and eventually reaches a constant. Plants have ability for additional concentration increase.
-Element groups (function):
* Organogen (C,H,O)
* Biogen (N,P,S)
* Osmotic regulators and enzyme activators(K,Ca,Mg,Zn,Cu)
* Redox components (Fe,Cu,Mo,Mn)
-Element groups (quantity):
* Macroelements
* Microelements
* Ultramicroelements

29
Q
  1. The macroelements of plants (physiological roles)
A
  • Macroelements: Nitrogen, Sulfur, Phosphor, Potassium, Magnesium, Calcium
  • Nitrogen: component in AA, protein, DNA, RNA. Slower proc. Lower quant. of fruits. Yellow leaf.
  • Sulfur: in AA and mustard oil glycogen
  • Phosphor: essential in DNA and RNA. Give phosphates.
  • Potassium: K+-activating enzymes. Give K+. Have osmotic prop. Have a role in transpiration.
  • Magnezium: in chlorophyll and ribosomes. Give MgSO4.
  • Calcium: a mech. stab. role in membr. structure.
30
Q
  1. The microelements of plants (physiological roles)
A
  • Microelements: Iron, Manganese, Copper, Zink, Nickel, Molibden, Boron, Cobolt, Xelen, Aluminium, Sodium
  • Iron: Fe2+/Fe3+ - most imp. redox system in plant, have a role in photosynthesis
  • Manganese: redox system, activator of enzymes
  • Copper: role in photosyntesis =>increase intensity, activator of some enzymes
  • Zink: Deficiency is normal in sandy soils =>give abnormal small plants
  • Nickel: essential to enzyme systems
  • Molibden: very small amounts, essential to N2-fixation and NO3-reduction
  • Boron: a role in pollen tube regulation and carbohydrate metabolism
  • Cobolt: a compound of vit. B12 ,essential for animals
  • Xelen: to much cause poisoning but in europe they are in deficiency in the soil
  • Aluminium: Neg. affect in germination, the more Al the slower growth, a poison to plants
  • Sodium: Role unknown
31
Q
  1. The laws of Liebig and Mitscherlich and the practical importance
A
  • Law of Liebig - law of minimum: You always having a minimum factor, the element that is in deficiency and in that way inhibit the development of the plant. Give that element to the plant => the plant will grow better and an other element are the minimum factor.
  • Practical importance: You know what to add to t. plant to ensure maximal growth o.t. plant.
  • Law o. Mitscherlich: A way to see if it’s worth to give more factor. The better a plant grow the smaller difference the addition of the minimum factor give. At one point it’s not economical to give more factors. The plant are close to the theoretical max. line, the “curve” is saturated.
  • Practical importance: Give you a way to see when you should stop adding minimum factors because it doesn’t give enough result.
32
Q
  1. Photosynthesis (importance, general equations, pigment of photosynthesis)
A

-Photosynthetic organisms: photoautotrophs.
-Transform light energy to chemical energy and than via reduction of CO2 make organic matter (carbohydrate) + oxygen.
-Equation: 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + light => C6H12O6 + 6 O2
General equation: H2D(donator)+A(acceptor)=(light)>H2A+D
-2 phases:
*light phase: photochemical react. Production of ATP or NADPH+Oxygen.
*dark phase: biochemical react. Production of sugars.
Pigments: chlorofylls, carotenoids, phicobilins

33
Q
  1. Light-phase of photosynthesis
A
  • Active wavelength: 400 – 800 nm
  • Light excite an electron into a higher state and when it’s going back the energy is used to create ATP.
  • Electron-transport:
  • Donor(oxidation)=>Chlorophyll=>Acceptor(reduction)
  • Sunlight=>chlorophylls=>electrontransport chain=> photophosphorilation
  • Mechanism: Chemiosmotical mechanism, movements of photos. and respiratoric electrontransportson diff. side of a membr.
  • Products: ATP and NADPH
34
Q
  1. Dark-phase of photosynthesis
A
  • Is dependent of the temp.
  • Calvin cycle: A lot of reactions w. known enzymes.
  • 3 phases:
    1. Carboxilation’s phase
    2. Reductive phase
    3. Regenerations phase
  • Carboxilation’s phase: bonding of CO2
  • Reductive phase: ATP=>ADP and NADPH=>NADP.
  • Regeneration phase: Production of sugars as Saccharose, starch and finally cellulose.
  • Plants w. calvin cycle are called C3-plants
35
Q
  1. The effect of different ecological factors on the photosynthesis
A

-Factors:
*Light: the more the larger photos.intensity(saturated curve)
*CO2 conc.: the more the larger photos.intensity(saturated curve), is a limiting factor for photos.
*Temp: optimal is 45 °C (maximum curve)
*Water: if defiency=>no photos.(direct effect) and the stomatas are closed (indirect)
Intensity: produced material/time

36
Q
  1. The main processes of the respiration, the characteristic specific properties of plant respiration
A
  • Respiration: Biological oxidation
  • Phases of respiration:
    1) Glycolysis
    2) Krebs-cycle
    3) Oxidative phosphoridation
  • Glycolysis: Glucose=>diff. intermediate=> Pyruvic acid. Aerobic or anaerobic.
  • Krebs-cycle: Pyruvic acid=>5 reduced coenzymes+3 CO2
  • Oxidative phosphoridation: In mitochondria. 4 diff. react. giving ATP. Plants also have a final oxidase (endoxydases).
  • Specific prop. for plants:
  • Germination: Intensity of respiration increase some days before germination
  • Senescence: Intensity of respiration increase just before senescence (last phase of plant life)
  • Stress: E.g. bacteria attack, mech. damage, etc. increase intensity of respiration. Succesful or not succesful
  • Cyanid resistant resp. Intensity of respiration decrease when you give it cyanid, an inhibitor.
37
Q
  1. Nitrogen cycle. The main processes of nitrogen cycle at the plants
A
  • Nitrates =(denitrification)>Nitrogen=(nitrogen-fixation)> ammonia=>Protein(Nitrates etc.
  • Sources of nitrogen: Organic (E.g. protein, peptide, amino acids) or Inorganic (Ammonium, Nitrate, Nitrogen, N2)
  • Nitrogen fixation:
  • Physical proc.
  • Chemical proc.
  • Biochemical proc. (Asymbiotic-/Symbiotic fixation/Symbiosis)
  • Nitrification: NH3=>NO3
  • Biological nitrogen fixation: N2 + 8H + +8e− + 16 ATP → 2NH3 + H2 + 16ADP + 16 Pi
  • Best nitrogen fixators Fabaceae family(nodules in roots)
  • Denitrification: Good for enviroment but bad for plants
38
Q
  1. Growth and development of the plants. Curves of growth.
A
  • Growth: sum of quantitative changes and metabolic proc.
  • Development: Sum of qualitative proc.
  • A cycle: Germination => vegetative development => flowering phase => pollination, fertilization => fruit production => latent phase (low intensity) => germination
  • Growth curves:
  • Unicellular: exponential growth
  • All green plants: Sigmoid growth (exponential + saturated), autocatalytic
  • Regulation of growth: Exogen (Outer factors; temp., water, soil) or endogen factors (plant hormones).
39
Q
  1. Plant hormones
A

1) Auxins, e.g. β-Indol Acetic Acid (IAA)
* stimulation of longit. growth
* resp., nucleic acid synth.,
* cell wall synth.
2) Cytokinins, e.g. kinetin
* stimulation of cell div.
* stimul. of nucleic acid and photosynth.
* inhibition of senescence
3) Gibberellins
* longit. growth
* regulation of flowering
4) Abscisic acid
* stimulate abscision
* inhibit all other funct. (like growth)
* stimulation o. ripening o. fruits (are in all fruits)
* inhibit all other functions

40
Q
  1. Main processes of the development
A
  • T. growth cycle: germination>vegetative development>flowering>pollination/fertilization>fruit prod.>dormancy
    1) Seed dormancy: Low intensity
    2) Germination:
  • First: iMhibition, water uptake
  • Second: intensive phase: hydrolyses of starch, oil and proteins
    3) Vegetative development: factors; Light and Temp.
    4) Flowering: factors; Temp., Light(neutral-, short day- and long day palnts)
    5) Pollination/fertilization: problems; interspecific incompatibility and autoincompatibility
    6) Embryo-, seed- and fruit formation: 4 subphases; cell div., cell elongation, ripening, opening of fruit
    7) Senescence: last period o. life in t. plants
41
Q
  1. Movements of plants
A

-2 main groups: active and passive
-Active movements:
1.Taxis (change of site) – seen only in algae, types:
o Phototaxis: pos.(towards) or neg.(away from) light source.
o Chemotaxis, thermotaxis, hydrotaxis: with pos. or neg. effects.
2.Tropism (change of position): in higher plants.
o Phototropism: auxin is higher on one side, increased growth on that side results in curve towards the light. Auxin gradient is due to different synthetic or hydrolytic activities, or light-darkness change.
o Gravitropism: gravity directs root growth, detected by gravity bodies that apply membrane pressure.
o Nastic movements (seismonastic): sensitive plant.

42
Q

Topic 42: Botanical characterization of the family Poaceae

A

-Class of monocots
-Morphology: fibrous root system, nodes and internodes on stem, Leaf: Ligule, auriculas, leaf base., no petiole
-Flowers: Inflorencens. Spike (spica) or panicle (panicula).
-Fruits: caryopsis (kernel, grains) type of simple dry fruit.
-Phases of development:
1. Germination
2. Tillering
3. Shooting
4. Heading of corn
5. Flowering - pollination - fertilization
-Phases of ripening:
A. Green ripening
B. Yellow ripening (Waxy ripening)
C. Total ripening
D. Overripenig
-Use: Green plant, grains as meal or as bran, straw.
-Utilization of grass species: Cereals, Pasture grasses, Sugar producing grasses, Building materials, Ornamental

43
Q

Topic 43: Botanical characterization of the family Fabaceae

A
  • Class of dicots
  • Roots: Taproot system, root nodules (Rhizobium bacteria) N-fixation.
  • Flower: Papilionid (fabaceous) flower:
  • Big part = Vexillum (standard)
  • The two similar = ala (wing)
  • Middle = two fused wings forming carina (keel)
  • Fruit: Pod (legumen or legume)–dehiscent or dry. Inside is seed.
  • Chemical composition:
  • Protein: 20 – 43 % (high lysine content)
  • Less carbohydrates
  • Mineral elements: Ca, P
  • Vitamines
  • Poisonous and antinutritive materials
44
Q

Topic 44: Cereals (wheat, rye, Triticale: biology and utilization)

A
  • Poaceae - C3-plant
  • Wheat(NR.1)-Triticum aestivum:
  • hard wheat and soft wheat
  • Spring wheat and Winter wheat
  • Utilization: Cereals, nutrition for animals. By-products: Bran and straw.
  • Rye-Secale cereale
  • Used as pioneer crop to improve wasteland and sterile soils
  • Shouldn’t be fed alone to animals=>sticky mass in mouth
  • Similar to wheat in composition but more lysine
  • AN: polyphenols, ergot body(!).
  • Triticale:
  • Mixture between wheat and rye, more tasty than rye.
  • 12 - 16% protein, high lysine content.
  • Can survive in poor soils
  • Used as a forage crop
45
Q

Topic 45: Cereals (barley, oat, rice: biology and utilization)

A
  • Poaceae – C3 plants
  • Barley-Hordeum vulgare(- 2, 4 or 6 rowed barley):
  • 11-18 % protein. AN: binding effect, mechanical damage.
  • Caryopsis used for animal feed, brewing malts and human diet. Straw used for litter.
  • Oat-Avena sativa:
  • Insensitive to soil conditions and acidity
  • Best cereal in protein and oil, excellent nutritive qualities. Good AA balance and mucilage components. Vit-E.
  • Human nutrition and as forage for breeding animal.
  • Rice(NR.2)-Oriza sativa:
  • Semiaquatic plant
  • Annual
  • Hollow stem
  • Food for more then 50% of the worlds population
  • Low in protein but of good quality, very good digestability, vit. B, E. AN: silica and oxalates.
46
Q

Topic 46: Cereals (millets: botany and utilization)

A

-Panicum miliaceum – common millet:
*Naked grains
*One fertile and one sterile floret
*May cause panicum photosensitization
*High crude fiber
*Utilization: Former as human nutrition, today it’s a forage plant for poultry and birds, also straw for sheep.
-Setaria italiaca – Foxtail millet
*grown under drought conditions
*short growth season
*human consumption, feeding livestock and birds. Hay and silage.
*may be toxic for horses due to setarian
-Sorghum millets:
*Human nutrient, caryopsis for forage, grazing and silage(conserved).
*Mais-like plants
Tex. Sorghum bicolor (grain sorghum) and Sorghum sudanense ( Sudan grass)

47
Q

Topic 47: Cereals (maize: biology and utilization)

A
  • Poaceae – C4
  • Corn(NR.3)-Zea maiz
  • 4 types: conv. dentiformis, conv. vulgaris (flint corn), conv. saccharatum (sweet corn), conv. microsperma (popcorn)
  • Best energy value
  • Needs N, P, K
  • Fibrous root system, climbing roots modified to bear weight
  • Has a black layer as a sign of maturity
  • Annual plant
  • One sterile and one fertile floret/spikelet
  • Harvest and utilization: Rain corn, Silage corn, Green corn, CCM (corn cob mix) for monogastric animals.
  • Storage: Drying, Fluid storage, Chemical methods (with acids)
48
Q

Topic 48: Antinutritive materials and their importance

A
  • Protease inhibitorr: Lower protein digestability, pancrease
  • Amilase inhibitors: Lower carbohydrate(starch) digestability
  • Lectines: Growth inhibition, hemagglutination
  • Saponins: Growth inhibition, hemagluttination, bloating
  • Oligosacharides: Bloating, Jerusalem artichoke
  • Fitinic acid: Formation of metal complexes
  • Polyphenols, eg Tannins: Formation of protein complexes, inhibit absorbtion of minerals
  • Poisonous AA: CNS symptoms
  • Chinolizidin alkaloids: Growth inhibition, liver disorders
49
Q

Topic 49: Pulse crops (forage legumes: biology and utilization)

A
  • Grain legumes
  • Fabaceae: Grown for their seeds or fruits
  • The fruit: pod is dry with large seeds
  • Fix nitrogen through Rhizobium
  • More protein than starch
  • AM: Protease inhibitors, trypsin, chymotrypsin, Amylase, tannins and alkaloids
  • Utilization:
  • Glycine max: nutrient for humans, forage, oil plant.
  • Pisum sativum: forage, straw for sheep, green manure used for improvement of soil, human consumption.
  • Phaseolus vulgaris: human consumption and straw for sheep.
  • Lens culinaris: human consumption and straw for sheep.
  • Lathyrus sativus: forage, straw and green manure.
  • Vicia faba: human consumption, forage, green forage.
  • Cicer arientinum: human consumption and forage
50
Q

Topic 50: Oil crops (biology and utilization)

A

-Fruit or seed: ca. 20-50 % fatty oil
-Twice as much energy/g than carbohydrates or protein
-Rich in Phosphor and poor in Ca
-Oil found in the cotyledon, endospermium and/or embryo
-Toxic and antinutritive factors
-Saturated fatty acids
-Production of oil:
A. Mechanical method – pressure
B. Extraction with solvents oil cakes and meals
-Non-drying, semi-drying and drying oils.
-Utilization: human nutrition, forage, oil cake, medicine and in industry.
- Oilseed rape – Brassica napus conv. oleifera
- Sunflower – Helianthus annus
- Peanut – Arachis hypogea
- Cotton – Gossypium hirsutum
- Hemp – Cannabis sativa
- Flax – Linum usitatissimum
- Castor bean – Ricinus communis

51
Q
  1. Forage legumes (biology and utilization)
A

-Chem. comp.:
*Indep. of N-sources.
*High protein and good mineral sources.
-Disadvantages:
*Phytoestrogens (fertility).
*Saponins (toxic glycosides/aminoacids->ruminal swelling).
*Cuscuta campestris-stem parasite (esp.Lucerne and Red Clover).
- Fabaceae
- Small seeded spp.
- Grown for stem/leaves, eaten by animals
- Different antinutritives, toxical compounds, some spp. can cause bloating
E.g.:
- Medicago sativa-Alfalfa: queen of forage crops
- Trifolium-clover group: red clover can cause bloating and sometimes secondary photosensation
- Onobrychis viciifolia
- Lotus corniculatus
- Melilotus albus
- Coronilla varia
- Anthyllis vulneraria
- Custcuta campestris (Dodder): dense clumpes

52
Q
  1. Green forages, tuber crops, leaf forages, cucumbers
A

Root crops:
-Green forages: excellent sources of vitamin E
- Edible, fleshy underground organs
- Storage in taproot
- Water content: 75 – 95%
- Carbohydrates: 50 – 75% (starch)
- Low in fiber, protein and oil
-E.g. Beta vulgaris, Daucus carota, Solanum tuberosum, Helianthus tuberosus
Broad-leaved forages:
- High green biomass, low fibre but high water content
- Livestock feeding
- Rich in protein, vit. B and C, carotene
-E.g.: Brassica oleracea
Cucumbers:
-E.g. Cucurbita pepo
- Large berry-like fleshy fruit
- Contain mainly water and some carbohydrate
- Seeds are rich in oil

53
Q
  1. Grassland (basics, components, importance with examples)
A
  • compromise about 24 % of the worlds vegetation, major agricultural sources.
  • plant community in which perennial grasses are dominating
  • Main components are: Grasses, Legumes, Sour grasses, Weeds
  • Grasses: Bottom grasses (for grazing), Top grasses (for hay), Densely tufted, Loosely tufted
  • Divided into diff. classes according to nutritional value. Class 1 – 4 (4 = Weeds).
  • Types: Pasture (for grazing) and meadow (for hay), Ornamental grasses, Sport grasses, Meadows
  • Benefits Protections of erosion and flood
  • Can be conserved for future use: Hay, Silage, Haylage, Artificial drying
54
Q
  1. The most important species of grasses
A 
Class 1:
- Lolium perenne/multiflorum.
- Alopecurus pratensis
- Trisetum Favescens
- Phleum pratense
Class 2:
- Festuca arundinaceae
- Festuca rubra
- Beckmannia eruciformis
Class 3:
- Anthoxantum odoratum
- Briza media
- Holcus lanatus
-Cynodon dactylon
Weeds: 
-Can cause mechanical injury and irritation of animals skin.
- Hordeum murinum
- Echinochloa crus-galli
- Avena fatua
55
Q
  1. Legumes species of grassland
A

-In optimal cases, makes up about 20% of a grassland.
- Fix N2 from atmosphere and provide it to the grasses
- improving soil
- high in protein and minerals for livestock feeding.
-Help to balance the aminoacid deicienses in grasses. Also improving soil fertility and productivity.
E.g.
- Trifolium spp. clovers
- Medicago spp. medicks
- Vicia spp. Onobrychis vicifolia
- sainfoin Lotus corniculatus

56
Q
  1. Plant groups in grassland of unfavourable effects
A
  • Sour grasses, only a practical group:
  • Juncus spp. Juncus maritimus
  • Typha spp. Typha angustifolia
  • Cyperacea, Carex spp. Carex vulpia
  • Cyperaceae spp: can contain cyanogenic glycosides and tannins.
  • Poisonous plants:
  • Eg. Spp belonging to family Scrophulariaceae, Linaria vulgaris.
  • Stinging plants causing mech. damage
  • Eg the Carduus spp, Thistles
57
Q

57) Botanical hay-analysis, theory, method

A
  • Drying methods: Traditional drying or stack drying
  • Questions to ask:
  • What is the quality?
  • What animal can be fed?
  • Are there any prohibitive factors?
  • Quality: diff. grades depending on how good they are
    1) If it contains sour grass
    2) diff. grades depending on what class the grass is in
    3) If there are any legumes in the grass
    4) If there are any stinging or coarse plants
    5) Depending on the reaping
    6) Depending on the colour
    7) If there are any poisonous plants? What type? Amount? What animal can eat the hay? Prohibitive factors?

Botany (4 decks)

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