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FINAL!!!!!! Flashcards

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AP® Biology flashcards Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Format for lab question?

A

How does the (Independent variable) ranging from (number with units) to (number with units) affect the (dependent variable) as measured by (however you will measure the dependent variable)

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2
Q

Format for lab hypothesis?

A

If (independent variable) is raised, lowered etc, then (the dependent variable) is expected to raise, lower, etc because (scientific reasoning)

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3
Q

What are the 3 types of variables identified in an experiment?

A

Dependent, Independent, control

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4
Q

What it the difference between theory, law, fact, and hypothesis?

A

Fact is a truth known by actual experience or observation
Hypothesis is a proposed explanation for an observation that can be tested by additional observations or experimentation
Law is a phenomenon of nature that has been proved to invariably occur whenever certain conditions exist or are met.
• Must be simple, true, universal, and absolute
Theory is an explanation based on a set of related hypotheses that have been tested and confirmed many times
• Cannot ever become facts or proven correct
• Supported by tons of facts, hypotheses, and laws
• Can be disproved with evidence
○ Get reworked

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5
Q

How could you design a lab that allows you to collect relevant, valid data while maintaining controls?

A

You can design this lab by first asking a measurable question, using the previously stated lab question format, then writing your hypothesis, again making all of your variables specifically measurable. Establish as many constants as possible, and a standard of comparison, the control. Write a complete procedure that even an elementary school student could follow, so the lab is specific enough to be repeated in the exact same way each time.

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6
Q

How do you write the conclusion of a lab (limitations, errors, improvements)?

A

The lab conclusion is written by restating the purpose of the experiment, or the question, then restating your hypothesis, accepting or rejecting with specific evidence WHY this is the case. Then discuss your results keeping in mind background information, whether the results make sense, and examine the procedure thinking whether the lab could be repeated multiple times, with similar results. Describe the limitations and errors of the lab. What couldn’t you do? What did you do wrong? How did this impact the collected data? Then suggest improvements for the lab in the future.

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7
Q

How did Charles Darwin contribute to our understanding of evolutionary theory?

A

Darwin, on his travels, noticed different, yet related species often occupied different habitats and that some fossils of extinct animals were similar to living species. His theories were that animals adapt according to their limitations within an environment, survival of the fittest, and more, helping us understand in simple terms why evolution occurs and how it generally proceeds.

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8
Q

Explain theory of Natural Selection (mechanism and needs for it to occur)

A

Struggle for existence-if more individuals are produced than can survive, members must compete for resources
Variation/adaption-some variants are better suited for life than others, including behavior or structure
Survival of Fittest-Individuals w/ adaptations that are well suited to environment will live longer and be able to reproduce more

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9
Q

How do fossil records support the evolutionary theory? What are they? Give an example.

A

Fossil records are preserved remains of organisms that lived in the past. They support evolutionary theory because many of them resemble species that are alive today, meaning that today’s species EVOLVED from past organisms.

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10
Q

How do homologous structures support the evolutionary theory? What are they? Give an example.

A

They are structures that are similar to other species of common ancestry, like forearm, hand and thumb structure in primates. It shows that some species come from the same roots, which is why they have common structures.

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11
Q

How do analogous structures support the evolutionary theory? What are they? Give an example.

A

They are structures that share common functions but not common structures, like wings in bugs versus birds, showing that organisms evolved for their environments.

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12
Q

How do vestigial structures support the evolutionary theory? What are they? Give an example.

A

They are structures that no longer have use in the organism’s body, like an appendix, showing that an ancestor used to need the structure but because of adaptions for the environment, we don’t need them anymore.

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13
Q

How does embryology support the evolutionary theory? What is it? Give an example.

A

Embryology is the study of the progressions of fetal and embryological development over time, showing that organisms evolved from common ancestors because we develop in the same way.

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14
Q

How does artificial selection support the evolutionary theory? What is it? Give an example.

A

Artificial selection is when humans choose desirable traits for organisms to exhibit, such as engineering tomatoes to be brighter red when ripe, showing that desirable traits can be inserted into a species and continued throughout time in an evolutionary way.

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15
Q

How does DNA evidence/biological molecules support the evolutionary theory? What is it? Give an example.

A

This is the monitoring of DNA to show how it changed over time, supporting evolution because it shows natural progression through time.

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16
Q

What is the evidence of fossil records?

A

Fossil records give proof of evolution because they give a specific time stamp of their creation, showing how each fossil of same ancestry changes over time.

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17
Q

What is the issue with fossil records?

A

When an organism dies, its whole body is not fossilized. It has little pieces that are fossilized, and when scientists interpret these little pieces, mistakes can be made. Also, some fossil records show that changes were not made over long periods of time but sometimes big changes were made within just a few decades.

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18
Q

What is the difference between gradualism and punctuated equilibrium?

A

Gradualism is when small biological changes in a species occur over a long period of time, but punctuated equilibrium is when these stable periods are interrupted by brief periods with rapid change.

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19
Q

What’s the difference between macro- and micro-evolution?

A

Microevolution is when a single species experiences evolution, but macroevolution is when it occurs in large groups at a time.

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20
Q

What is the Linnaean system of taxonomy?

A 
Kings Play Chess on Fine Grain Sand:
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Genus
Species
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21
Q

What is Binomial Nomenclature? Give an example

A

n

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22
Q

What’s the difference between the 5- and 6-kingdom systems?

A

n

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23
Q

Explain the 3-domain system

A

n

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24
Q

What are 3 characteristics of the animalia kingdom?

A

b

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25
Q

What are 3 characteristics of the plantae kingdom?

A

n

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26
Q

What are 3 characteristics of the fungi kingdom?

A

n

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27
Q

What are 3 characteristics of the protista kingdom?

A

n

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28
Q

What are 3 characteristics of the eubacteria kingdom?

A

n

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29
Q

What are 3 characteristics of the archaebacteria kingdom?

A

n

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30
Q

How do you use and create dichotomous keys?

A

n

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31
Q

Discuss the evolutionary events leading to the branches of the 3-domain system

A

n

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32
Q

What are the 4 main groups of organic compounds?

A

Proteins, lipids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates

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33
Q

What is the basic function of lipids?

A

Fats, oils, waxes can be used to store energy and build biological membranes and waterproof coverings (like cell membranes)

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34
Q

What is the basic function of carbohydrates?

A

Main source of energy

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35
Q

What is the basic function of proteins?

A

They can be used as energy, they transport things in and out of cells, they build structures, and enzymes are proteins, which regulate cell processes,

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36
Q

What is the basic function of nucleic acids?

A

They store and transport genetic information

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37
Q

Explain enzyme activity as an example of a protein

A

essential role in controlling chemical pathways, making materials that cells need, releasing energy, and transferring information. Because they are catalysts for reactions, enzymes can be affected by an variable that influences a chemical reaction; temperature, pH, and regulatory molecules can affect the activity of enzymes.

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38
Q

Whats the difference between saturated, unsaturated, and trans fats? Give examples.

A

A saturated fat is solid at room temperature and it clogs your arteries. Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature, and are the healthiest type of fat. Trans fats are the worst kinds of fats, and raise your low density lipoprotein.

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39
Q

What is the difference between polysaccharides,, disaccharides, and monosaccharides? Give examples of each.

A

Monosaccharides are simple sugar molecules (glucose), disaccharides are two monosaccarides (sucrose), polysaccharides are multiple simple sugars joined (glycogen).

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40
Q

What is the difference between plant and animal cells?

A

Plant cells rarely have lysosomes, never have centrioles, and animal cells don’t have chloroplasts or cell walls.

41
Q

What are the differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells?

A

Prokaryotic cells are single celled organisms, and they don’t have nuclei. They store their information in the cytoplasm. They always have cell walls, villi, and flagella.

42
Q

What are the 11 parts of a cell that were covered during the cell unit and what is the basic structure and function of each?

A

Nucleus: houses the DNA
Cytoplasm: Provides structure and carries DNA in prokaryotic cells
Ribosomes: Assemble proteins
Vacuoles: Store materials
Lysosomes: Break down macromolecules
Endoplasmic Reticulum: Assembles proteins and lipids
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, packages proteins for storage or transport
Chloroplast: Convert solar energy into cellular energy in plant cells
Mitochondria: Convert food energy into usable energy
Cell wall: Shapes, supports, protects the cell in plants and prokaryotes
Cell Membrane: Protects the cell and manages

43
Q

Describe the fluid-mosaic model of the cell membrane.

A

A thin polar membrane made of two layers of lipid molecules, with the “heads” of the pin shaped lipids facing outwards, which are hydrophilic. The tail is hydrophobic. Carbohydrates and surface, integral, globular, and peripheral proteins float in and on top of the layer, and protein channels, the transport proteins, are like macaroni noodles that allow materials to pass through the membrane.

44
Q

Define osmosis and explain how it relates to the cell membrane.

A

Osmosis is the diffusion of water across the cell membrane. The cell membrane controls how much water can enter cell

45
Q

Define diffusion and explain how it relates to the cell membrane

A

Diffusion is the process by which particles tend to move from high to low concentration. Cell membrane controls whether or not certain particles are allowed to cross into cell through pores and diffusion

46
Q

Name and describe the phases of mitosis

A

Prophase: Chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nucleus disappears
Metaphase: Chromosomes line up along a plane
Anaphase: Chromosomes break at centromeres, travel along spindle to opposite sides of cell
Telophase and cytokinesis: cell splits and nuclei, cytoplasm, membrane reform

47
Q

What is the purpose of mitosis?

A

Split cells to replenish after some die

48
Q

Define chromosome

A

Threadlike structure within nucleus that contains genetic info passed from one generation to next

49
Q

Define Centriole

A

Structure in animal eukaryotes that helps organize cell division

50
Q

Define centromere

A

Region of chromosome where two sister chromatids attach

51
Q

Define spindle fibers

A

Protein structures that form to aid cell division; stringy forms that chromatids move along

52
Q

What happens during interphase in the cell cycle?

A

Cell grows, DNA is replicated

53
Q

Name and describe the phases of meiosis.

A

Interphase: Cell grows, DNA is replicated
Prophase: Chromosomes line up, “crossing over” occurs when 2 chromosomes line up and exchange DNA by breaking off and switching chromatids
Metaphase: Independent assortment occurs when chromosomes line up randomly on a plane, spindle fibers are attached.
Anaphase: Chromosomes move apart to opposite end of the cell
Telophase: Cell divides into two
Meiosis II: All steps are repeated, end result 4 genetically different sex cells.

54
Q

Define the concept of homologous chromosomes.

A

There is one maternal and one paternal chromosomal pair.

55
Q

What’s the difference between the products of meiosis in males and females?

A

Males: sperm
Females: egg cells

56
Q

Explain Mendel’s 2 laws of heredity

A

Mendel’s laws of segregations and independent assortment can be demonstrated through one and two factor crosses (Punnett squares). The inheritance of characteristics is passed from parent to offspring, and some alleles in genes are dominant, and some are recessive. IN sexually produced organisms, the offspring has two sets of genes, each one coming from one parent. Alleles from different genes are separate from each other.

57
Q

Define dominant

A

An organism with at least one dominant allele for a particular form of a trait that will exhibit that particular form of the trait. (Dominant allele will “cover up” recessive allele)

58
Q

Define recessive

A

An organism with a recessive allele for a particular form of a trait that will only exhibit that particular form of the trait only if both alleles are recessive (1 dominant will cover up 1 recessive, so there must be 2 recessives)

59
Q

Define heterozygous

A

Organisms that have two different forms of the allele for the same gene. (One dominant, one recessive)

60
Q

Define homozygous

A

Organisms that have two identical alleles for the same gene (2 dominants or 2 recessives)

61
Q

Define allele

A

A form of a gene (can be dominant A or recessive a)

62
Q

Define phenotype

A

Physical characteristic

63
Q

Define genotype

A

Characterized by genetic make up

64
Q

Define autosomes

A

Chromosomes that aren’t sex chromosomes

65
Q

Define carriers

A

A person who carries a gene but doesn’t express it (gene is recessive and covered up by dominant)

66
Q

How do you complete dihybrid genetic crosses?

A

Wwdd and WwDd: You find all possible combos within the first parent of W and D.
Wwdd: Wd, wd, Wd, and wd
WwDd: WD, wD, Wd, and wd.
Put one parent on the top, the other on the left using the previous wd combos, then complete cross like a normal punnet square. (Should have 16 results)

67
Q

Define sex-linked traits and include an example

A

A trait that is carried on the sex chromosome (Color blindness carried on X chromosome)

68
Q

Define sex-influenceed traits and include an example

A

A trait not carried on the sex chromosome but generally occurs only with a particular gender phenotypically (baldness)

69
Q

Define multiple alleles and include an example

A

A gene with more than two alleles (eye color)

70
Q

Define codominance and include an example

A

Phenotypes produced by both alleles are both clearly expressed (RW flower is colored w/ red and white swirls)

71
Q

Define incomplete dominance and include an example

A

When one allele is not completely dominant over another (Rr flower is colored pink because R red isn’t completely dominant over r white)

72
Q

Describe the structure of DNA including nucleotides, sugar-phosphate backbone, and nitrogen bases (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine)

A

nucleotide: consists of sugar, phosphate, and a nitrogen base
you have the sugar-phosphate backbone->deoxyribose sugar->base.
adenine and guanine are double ringed
cytosine and thymine are single ringed.
two bases are held by a hydrogen bond
and the 2 strands of DNA are anti-parallel: 3-5, 5-3

73
Q

What was Chargraff’s role in understanding DNA?

A

Austrian biochemist who discovered two rules that led to the discovery of the double helix structure of DNA.

74
Q

What was Rosalind Franklin’s role in understanding DNA?

A

Took x-ray diffraction images of DNA that led to the discovery of the double helix

75
Q

What was Watson/Crick’s role in understanding DNA?

A

Built a 3D model of the double helix, figuring out important things about the structure of DNA as they went.

76
Q

What’s the difference between Purines and pyrimidines?

A

Pyridimines have single ring (T, C), purines have double rings (A, G)

77
Q

Describe the process of DNA replication including DNA ligase, DNA polymerase, and DNA helicase

A

Helicase unwinds the DNA, and RNA Primase adds a short stretch of RNA to the DNA. Starting with the RNA Primase, the DNA Polymerase adds complementary base pairs to the unwound DNA, moving from 5’ to 3’. When the DNA Polymerase is done, RNA primers are removed and there are two separate, identical strands of DNA.

78
Q

How do the processes of Transcription and Translation make up protein synthesis?

A

Transcription: RNA polymerase binds to DNA sequence that signals “start”, RNA polymerase unwinds and separates DNA strand, adds complementary RNA nucleotides (builds strand pairing U and A, C and G), RNA polymerase reaches “stop” signal in nitrogen bases, strand is released from DNA, mRNA exits nucleus
Translation: ribosome attaches to mRNA strand, rRNA reads 3-nucleotide sequences (codons) in mRNA, signals tRNA to bring anticodon w/ amino acid, as amino acids brought to ribosome, bind together to build protein chain, continues until a stop codon reached

79
Q

Define and explain substitutions

A

One base in the DNA is mistranslated and changed to a different base. Usually affects no more than a single amino acid, and sometimes they have no effect at all on overall protein created.

80
Q

Define and explain insertions

A

One base is inserted in the DNA sequence. Effect can be dramatic. They can also create a frameshift mutation. affecting every amino acid and they can alter a protein so much that it is unable to perform its normal functions.

81
Q

Define and explain deletions

A

Deletion of a base in the DNA, creating a frameshift mutations, affecting every single amino acid. Can alter a protein so much that it is unable to perform normal functions

82
Q

Write the equation for photosynthesis

A

Carbon dioxide+water+light –> Sugar + oxygen

6CO2 + 6H2O + light = C6H12O6 + 6O2

83
Q

Explain what happens in the light dependent reactions of photosynthesis including what is needed and what is put out

A

Takes place in thylakoid and membrane
Water is split as source of electrons from hydrogen bonds; oxygen released, bonds with another oxygen, gas released as byproduct
Electrons passed along transport chain, increase of potential energy; light energy absorbed by chlorophyll excites electrons, boosting energy levels. Trapped by receptor molecules in chain, electrons falling down metaphorical stairs, releasing energy to make ATP
Light reactions yield ATP and NADPH to fuel reactions of Calvin cycle

84
Q

Explain what happens in the light independent reactions of photosynthesis including what is needed and what is put out

A

ATP and NADPH used to fuel calvin cycle
Carbon fixation: 1 Carbon (from carbon dioixide) attached to 5 carbon molecule (RuBP), now 6 carbon molecule split into 2 groups of 3
Reduction: electrons from ATP, NADH used to reduce (add electrons) to CO2
G3P: Splits into RuBP and sugar, glucose, cellulose, starch
Glucose is made by running through the cycle 6 times

85
Q

Describe structure of mitochondria

A

Matrix is middle part, where glycolysis and krebs cycle occur, inner membrane and outer membrane where ETC happens

86
Q

Write equation for cellular respiration

A

C6H12O6 + 6O2 = 6CO2 + 6H2O

Glucose + Oxygen = Carbon Dioxide + Water

87
Q

What happens in glycolysis?

A 
Input: glucose
In cytoplasm, 2 ATP molecules transfer energy to glucose molecule, two 3-carbon molecules converted to pyruvate, ATP formed
Outputs: 2 ATP
2 NADH
2Pyruvate
88
Q

What happens in the Krebs Cycle?

A 
Input: 2 Pyruvate
Pyruvated enters mitochondria, forms acetyl-CoA, electrons transferred to NAD to make NADH, carbon is lost forming carbon dioxide and water from pyruvate, cycle completes twice per glucose in glycolysis
Outputs: 8 NADH
2 ATP
2 FADH2
89
Q

What happens in the ETC of cellular respiration?

A

Input: 8 NADH, 2 ATP
Membrane bound carriers in mitochondria pass electrons; as electrons are transferred, the membrane proteins capture energy to produce ATP, which are pumped across the membrane. When hydrogen flows back across membrane, through ATP synthase, ATP is formed. Oxygen is final electron accepter; by accepting electrons, oxygen is reduced to form water
Output: 32 ATP

90
Q

What happens when oxygen is unavailable during CR?

A

Some organisms thrive in environments w/ little/no oxygen. If no oxygen is present, anaerobic respiration occurs, where only glycolysis is used, making only 2 ATP and an end product such as ethanol alcohol or lactic acid.

91
Q

What happens in anaerobic respiration in plants and animals?

A

Fermentation creates alcohol or lactic acids. It releases energy from food molecules by producing ATP, converting NA to NAD+ by passing high energy electrons back to pyruvic acid, converting NADH back into NAD+, allowing glycolysis to produce steady supply of ATP

92
Q

What are biotic factors?

A

Biotic factors are the living parts that shape the ecosystem

93
Q

What are abiotic factors?

A

The non-living parts of the ecosystem, like rocks, water, air, and light that shape the ecosystem

95
Q

What’s the difference between a hetero- and autotroph?

A

Heterotroph: eats others to obtain energy
Autotroph: can make their own energy; plants

95
Q

Describe a trophic pyramid

A

In a trophic pyramid, the lowest layer is the producer, which gets 10,000 units of energy. Then, the primary consumer, a herbivore, is on top of that, which gets 1,000 units of energy. Then, the secondary consumer, omnivore/carnivore gets 100 units, then the tertiary consumer, usually a carnivore, gets 10 units.

96
Q

Describe an ecological food chain and web

A

Food Chain: shows energy transfer using a simple graph. Producers->Primary->Secondary->tertiary
Food Web: a net of animals showing how energy is transferred by many animals using an arrow.

97
Q

How do the 2 laws of thermodynamics apply to ecology?

A

1st law of Thermodynamics: energy is not lost or gained, but changes form
Energy moves from species to other species
2nd law of Thermodynamics: energy moves from more organized forms to less organized forms.
Plants to animals

99
Q

What is you impact on your surroundings (ecological footprint, overpopulation)

A

Ecological footprint: we can run out of resources and earths due to people using so much resources.
Human population issues: using up too much resources and we are going to have to adapt our lifestyles because we only have one planet

Biology (3 decks)

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