Final Flashcards
(248 cards)
1
Q
Physiology definition
A
study of the function of the body’s cells, tissues, organs, and systems
2
Q
exercise physiology definition
A
study of how acute and chronic exercise impacts the function of the body’s cells, tissues, organs, and systems
3
Q
components of a research article
A
abstract, intro, research methods, results, discussion, references
4
Q
calorie definition
A
amount of heat needed to raise 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius
5
Q
direct calorimetry
A
measure of heat production as an indication of metabolic rate
6
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indirect calorimetry
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measure oxygen consumption as an estimate of metabolic rate
7
Q
open-circuit spirometry
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measure the uptake of oxygen (air in-air out)
8
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3 factors that influence exercise efficiency
A
exercise intensity, speed of movement, muscle fiber type
9
Q
how do we estimate energy expenditure in the gym
A
power = work/time
direct relationship (heart rate, oxygen consumption)
10
Q
homeostasis
A
physiological variables that don’t change at rest (basal state)
11
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steady state
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unchanging physiological variable
12
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components of biological control system
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sensor, receptor, control center, effector
13
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feedback of most biological control systems
A
negative feedback
14
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adaptation
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change in structure and function of cell or organ over time, allowing improved ability to maintain homeostasis or steady state
15
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acclimation
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adapting to environmental stressors (temp, altitude, humidity)
16
Q
5 mechanisms of cell signaling
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intracrine, juxtracrine, autocrine, paracrine, endocrine
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intracrine cell signaling
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a chemical message sent within a cell
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juxtracrine signaling
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a chemical message between two cells
19
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autocrine signaling
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a chemical message on the same cell, but message leaves the cell first
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paracrine signaling
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message acts on nearby cells
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endocrine signaling
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message released into blood stream, usually hormones
22
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hormesis definition
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low dose of a potentially harmful stress resulting in beneficial adaptations
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which molecules help maintain cellular homeostasis
A
ATP, glucose, glycogen, oxygen, etc
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Q
catabolic reaction
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breaks apart molecules
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anabolic reactions
builds molecules
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why are mitochondria important
make ATP! break down carbs and fatty acids, consume oxygen to generate ATP
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2 types of chemical reactions
endergonic and exergonic
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endergonic reactions
require energy
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exergonic reactions
release energy
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oxidation reaction
loss of electrons and protons (hydrogen), gain oxygen
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reduction reaction
gain of electrons and protons (hydrogen), loss of oxygen
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reducing equivalents
NADH and FADH2 carry electrons that can be released for energy in the mitochondria
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enzymes function
speed up the rate of a reaction by decreasing amount of energy needed to start the reaction
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3 macronutrients used for fuel
carbs, fatty acids, proteins
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how is glucose stored
stored as glycogen in muscles and the liver
glycogen synthases turns glucose into glycogen
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glycogenolysis
process of breaking down glycogen into glucose
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fatty acids
primary form of fat used for fuel
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trigylcerides
storage of fatty acids in muscle tissue and adipose tissue
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how does atp provide energy
energy is released when phosphate group is broken off, forming adp
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three bioenergetic pathways
phosphocreatine, glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation
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bioenergetic pathway
produces ATP
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fastest bioenergetic pathway
phosphocreatine
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slowest bioenergetic pathway
oxidative phosphorylation
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which bioenergetic pathway produces lactate
anaerobic glycolysis
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what does the body do with lactate produced by anaerobic glycolysis
goes into the bloodstream, then the liver, liver converts it back to glucose
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where do oxidative phosphorylation and beta oxidation occur
mitochondria
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is oxidative phosphorylation driven by supply or demand
demand
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oxidative phosphorylation
consumption of oxygen to produce ATP
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beta oxidation
break down fats for energy
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what is o2 consumption at rest?
0.25L/min
3.5ml/kg/min
1 MET
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what is 1 MET
oxygen consumption at rest, metabolic equivalent
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when does ATP consumption increase at the start of exercise?
immediately
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Oxygen deficit definition
lag in usage of oxygen at the start of exercise (endurance trained individuals have a lower deficit)
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why do trained individuals have a lower oxygen deficit?
better developed aerobic bioenergetic capacity due to cardiovascular (more capillaries) and muscular adaptations (greater mitochondrial volume)
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what is EPOC
excessive post-exercise oxygen consumption, repay oxygen dept and resynthesis of phosphocreatine in muscles, replenish myoglobin and hemoglobin stores
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what is VO2 max
maximal oxygen uptake, increases linearly during exercise until ceiling is reached, influenced by training and genetics
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what physiological factors influence VO2 max
ability of the cardiorespiratory system to deliver oxygen, ability of muscles to use oxygen to produce ATP
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Lactate threshold definition
the work rate at which blood lactic acid rises systematically during incremental exercise
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what three factors influence fuel selection during exercise
intensity, duration, availability of fuels
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what fuel source do we use more of the longer we exercise
fat
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hormone definition
chemical message that travels through the blood to target tissues and cells
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what are classed of hormones
based on chemical makeup, amino acids (catecholamines), peptides/proteins, steroids
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what is hormones role in the body
fine tune physiological processes like growth, metabolism, BP, and reproduction
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how are hormones regulated
homeostatically
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what effects the effect of a hormone
concentration, number of receptors, affinity of receptors
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how do steroid hormones signal
travels to the nucleus to activate genes
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where are hormones secreted from
endocrine glands: hypothalamus and pituitary glands, thyroid and parathyroid glands, adrenal gland, pancreas, testes and ovaries
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what does the hypothalamus do
exerts homeostatic control over hormone secretion
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what does somatostatin do
exerts negative feedback on hormone secretion from various glands
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what does growth hormone do
stimulates the release of insulin-like growth factors, reduces the use of plasma glucose, increases gluconeogenesis, mobilizes fatty acids
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what does IGF-1 do?
amino acid uptake and protein synthesis, long bone growth
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what does the thyroid gland do
secreted triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4) which increase metabolic rate
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Adrenal medulla gland
secretes catecholamines epinephrine and norepinephrine
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what is the effect of catecholamines on beta receptors
increases heart rate, breathing and metabolism
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what is the effect of catecholamines on alpha receptors
counters the effects on beta receptors, more selective
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what does the adrenal cortex gland do
secretes steroid hormones: sex steroids and glucocorticoids
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what does cortisol do
slow-acting catabolic, increased by stress, peak in am, stimulates breakdown of triglycerides
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what does testosterone do
anabolic steroid, promotes tissue building, increases strength and power, androgenic: promotes masculine characteristics
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what does estrogen and progesterone do
establish and maintain reproductive function
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what does the pancreas do
secretes insulin (from beta cells) and glucagon (from alpha cells)
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what does glucagon do
promotes the production/release of fatty acids and glucose
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what does insulin do
promotes the storage of glucose, amino acids, and fats
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how is blood glucose homeostasis maintained during exercise
release of glucose from liver, production of new glucose, decrease in glucose uptake in cells that aren't the brain, release of free fatty acids from adipose tissue
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which hormones does adipose tissue secrete
leptin and adiponectin
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what does leptin do
suppresses appetite, enhances insulin sensitivity
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what does adiponectin do
increases insulin sensitivity and fatty acid oxidation
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what hormone does skeletal muscle produce
myokines
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immunity definition
protects the body against foreign agents (pathogens)
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what is the adaptive immune response
the body learns to identify pathogens
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what do B cells do
produce antibodies in response to an antigen
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what do T cells do
respond to antigens based on protein receptors on their surface
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what do killer T cells do
attack out own cells that are infected with a virus
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what do helper T cells do?
secrete cytokines to recruit more immune cells to the infection site
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what does acute inflammation do
short term response to injury, vasodilation, increased blood flow
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what does chronic inflammation do
persistent infection, increased circulation of cytokines
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what is the risk of exercise on upper respiratory tract infection
J shaped curve, too little and too much is bad
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sensory nervous system definition
detects stimuli and transmits information from receptors to CNS (input)
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somatic sensory system definition
sensory input that is consciously perceived from receptors
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visceral sensory system definition
sensory input that is not consciously perceived from receptors
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motor nervous system definition
initiates and transmits information from the CNS to effectors
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somatic motor system definition
motor output that is consciously or voluntarily controlled
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autonomic motor system definition
motor output that is not consciously or involuntarily controlled
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afferent definition
towards the brain
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efferent definition
away from the brain
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cell body of a neuron
contains the nucleus
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dendrites
conduct impulses toward the cell body
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axon
carries electrical impulse away from cell body, covered by schwann cells (myelin sheath)
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synapse
small gap between presynaptic neuron and postsynaptic neuron
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neurotransmitters
chemicals released at synapse changes electrical charge which depolarizes pre synaptic neuron
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action potential definition
electrical response of cell, all or none law
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proprioceptors definition
tell CNS info about body position, found in joints and muscles
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muscle spindle definition
info about length and rate of shortening, stretch promotes reflex contraction
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kinesthesia definition
conscious recognition of the position of body parts, recognition of speed of limb movement
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Golgi tendon organ definition
provides information about muscle force production
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Skeletal muscle chemoreceptors definition
sensitive to changes in the chemical environment surrounding muscle fibers, contraction increases acidity an CO2 which increases HR and breathing
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somatic motor function
motor neurons located within spinal cord, carry neural messages from spinal cord to skeletal muscles
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motor unit definition
motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates
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neuromuscular junction definition
where neuron and muscle meet
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innervation ratio
number of muscle fibers innervate per moto neuron
fine motor control has low innervation ratio
joints have high innervation ratio
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motor unit recruitment and size principle
recruit more muscle fibers by activation more motor units, smallest motor units recruited first during exercise
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three types of motor units
Type S (slow) - smallest
Type FR (fast, fatigue resistant)
Type FF (fast, fatigable) - largest
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autonomic nervous system function
maintains homeostasis by effecting organs not under voluntary control
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sympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
release epinephrine and norepinephrine, dilate pupils, increase HR, slow digestion
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parasympathetic division of autonomic nervous system
releases acetylcholine, constricts pupils and bronchi, slow HR, relax blood vessels, promote digestion
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how does exercise enhance brain health
improves learning and memory, neurogenesis, vascular function, reduces depression
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what are the three types of muscle actions
concentric, eccentric, isometric
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epimysium definition
surrounds entire muscle
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perimysium definition
surrounds bundles of muscle fibers
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endomysium definition
surrounds individual muscle fibers
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satellite cells definition
support growth and repair of skeletal muscle
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skeletal muscle fibers definition
multinucleated cells with myofibrils that contain contractile proteins actin and myosin
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sarcomere definition
the contractile unit of skeletal muscle
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sliding filament theory
muscle contracts because actin and myosin slide along each other, shortening sarcomere length
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which muscle cell has the least amount of mitochondria
type 2x - fast fibers
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role of calcium in muscle contraction
allows actin and myosin to bind, stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum
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tetanus definition
continuous firing of motor neurons creating maximum force
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muscle fatigue definition
decline in muscle power output metabolic or mechanical limitations
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how does aging affect muscle mass and function
10% between age 25-50
additional 40% between age 50-80 resistance training can delay loss
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sarcopenia definition
age-related loss of muscle mass and function
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role of acetylcholine in muscle fibers
causes depolarization of muscle fiber (contraction), released by motor neuron
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muscular dystrophy
hereditary defects in muscle protein, results in loss of muscle fibers and weakness
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3 functions of the cardiorespiratory system
transport oxygen, remove CO2, regulate body temperature
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how does blood flow change during exercise
increased cardiac output, increased blood flow to activate muscle which reduces blood flow to inactive organs
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plasma
liquid portion of blood, contains small proteins, nutrients, etc.
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red blood cells
carry oxygen via hemoglobin
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parts of blood
plasma, white blood cells, platelets, red blood cells
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hematocrit definition
percentage of blood as red blood cells, usually 40-45%
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heart
create pressure to pump blood, part of circulatory system
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arteries and arterioles
carry blood away from the heart, part of circulatory system
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veins and venules
carry blood toward the heart, part of circulatory system
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capillaries
exchange of O2 and CO2 and nutrients with tissues, part of circulatory system
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epicardium definition
connective tissue of the heart
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myocardium definition
heart muscle
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endocardium definition
acts like a blood vessel
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systole definition
contraction phase of cardiac cycle, ejects blood
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diastole definition
relaxation phase of cardiac cycle, fills with blood
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determinants of mean arterial pressure
cardiac output x total vascular resistance
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arterial blood pressure
systolic/diastolic
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short term regulation of blood pressure
by sympathetic nevous system and baroreceptors in aorta and carotid arteries
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long term regulation of blood pressure
kidneys via control of blood volume
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hypertension
blood pressure above 140/90 mmHG
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cardiac output
amount of blood pumped by the heart each minute Q=HRxSV
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what causes low resting HR
parasympathetic nervous system
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how does exercise influence HR
initial ride rue to decreased parasympathetic activity (100bpm), subsequent increase increase in sympathetic activity to SA node
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where does gas exchange occur in the lungs
alveoli (alveolar wall)
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how does movement of air occur?
pressure differences between intrapulmonary pressure and atmospheric pressure
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pulmonary ventilation definition
movement of air into and out of the lungs V=Vt x frequency
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Tidal volume (Vt)
volume of gas moved per breath
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Oxyhemoglobin definition
Hemoglobin (Hb) bound to oxygen (how 99% of oxygen is transported in the blood)
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how is CO2 transported in the blood
dissolved in plasma (10%)
Bound to Hb (20%)
Bicarbonate (70%)
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what are the two parts of the control of ventilation
inspiration and expiration
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inspiration definition
inhale air, controlled by control center located in medullar oblongata
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expiration definition
exhale air, input from higher brain, muscle mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors
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what are the three principles of training
overload, specificity, reversibility
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overload definition
training effect occurs when a physiological system is exercised at a level beyond which it is normally accustomed
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specificity definition
training effect specific to muscle fibers recruited during exercise, energy systems involved, type of muscle contraction
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reversibility definiiton
gains are lost when training ceases
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how does endurance and resistance exercise training increase protein synthesis
exercise stress activates gene transcription and protein synthesis
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what is the process of training-induced muscle adaptation
1. muscle contraction activates signal pathways to promote adaptation
2. results in gene expression and synthesis of new proteins
3. adaptations dependent on mode, intensity, and duration of activity
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what is the recommended training to increase VO2 max
large muscle groups, dynamic activity, 20-60 min 3 or more times per week at greater than 50% VO2 max
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what is the average increase in VO2 max with exercise
15-20% (up to 50% in those with low initial)
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Cardiac Output
amount of blood pumped to the muscle
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a-v O@ difference
amount of oxygen taken up by muscle for ATP production
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Cardiac Output equation
Q = SV x HR
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what are short-term adaptations to exercise
increase plasma volume (cardiac output)
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anaerobic training adaptations
hypertrophy of type 2 muscle fibers and mitochondrial biogenesis
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muscular strength
maximal force a muscle group can generate
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muscular endurance
ability to make repeated contractions against a submaximal load
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muscle hypertrophy
increased muscle mass cause by growth of existing muscle fibers
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high resistance / load training
2-8 reps, increase muscle hypertrophy and strength in all individuals
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medium resistance / load training
8-15 reps, increase muscle hypertrophy and strength in untrained individuals
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low resistance / load trainig
20+ reps, increases muscular endurance but not strength or hypertrophy
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where do adaptations to resistance training occur first
nervous system, skeletal system second
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training volume equation
set x reps x resistance
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when does muscle protein synthesis increase
immediately after exercise
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concurrent training
cardio and resistance training performed in the same session, have opposing effects so strength gains decrease
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how long for recovery of dynamic strength loss when you begin retraining
as quickly as 3 weeks
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2 parts of prescription of medicine
dose, effect
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FITT principle
Frequency (days per week), Intensity, Time (minutes of exercise), Type (activity)
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how is VO2max measured
Direct: Graded exercise test
Indirect: heartrate, estimations
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% Heart rate reserve equation
HR / (HR max - resting HR)
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Borg Scale
quantify exercise intensity, originally 6-20 now 0-20
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guidelines for improving fitness
screening, progression, warm up, cool down
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which diseases involve controlling glucose during exercise
type 1 and 2 diabetes
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which diseases involve controlling lung function and immune system during exercise
asthma and COPD
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which diseases involve controlling vascular and cardiac function during exercise
hypertension and myocardial infarction
207
asthma
shortness of breath and wheezing, due to contraction and inflammation of smooth muscle airways
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chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
includes bronchitits, emphysemsa, and bronchial asthma, limits activities, may require oxygen
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who is cardiac rehabilitation recommended for
angina pectoris, myocardial infraction, coronary artery bypass graft, angioplasty
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three phases of cardiac rehabilitation
1. inpatient exercise program
2. outpatient exercise, close supervision
3. less direct supervision, may be home-based
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how much does vo2 max decline in older adults
1% per year
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major adaptations to pregnancy
*blood volume increases 40-50%
*oxygen uptake and heart rate are higher during rest and during exercise
*cardiac output is higher at rest and during exercise in first two trimesters
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what are the exercise recommendations for cancer patients
- multiple short sessions
- preferred aerobic modalities
- strength and flexibility at least 2 days per week
214
high-intensity interval training
repeated cycles of short duration high intensity exercise with recovery periods
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what are the components of metabolic syndrome
increased BP, high triglycerides, large waistline, low hdl cholesterol, elevated fasting blood sugar
216
hypertension metabolic syndrome measurement
> 130/80 mm Hg
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what causes many chronic diseases
inflammation / obesity
218
glycemic index
measurement of how a specific carb food elevates blood glucose levels (higher is worse for health)
219
benefits of fiber
promotes bowel movement, reduces risk of diverticular disease, lowers cholesterol levels
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protein function
contractile elements for muscle, membrane transporters, enzymes, hormones
221
how many amino acids does the body need
20, 9 are essential
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energy intake of macronutrients
carbs 45-65%
fats 20-35%
protein 10-35%
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RDA for protein
0.8g per kg of body weight
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what source of protein contains all 9 amino acids
animal sources
225
three major classes of lipids
1. triglycerides (stored form)
2. Phospholipids (found in membranes)
3. sterols (make hormones and some vitamins
226
Adequate intake of water
2.7 L per day (women), 3.7 L per day (men)
227
requirements to be a vitamin
- body can't synthesize compound or make enough
- compound found naturally in foods
- when compound is missing, results in poor health
228
two-compartment model of body composition
fat mass, fat free mass
229
BMI equation
weight (kg) / height (m^2)
230
equation for energy balance
change in body macronutrient stores = energy intake - energy expenditure
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popular low carb diets
atkins, south beach, zone, ketogenic
232
popular low fat diets
mediterrranean, ornish
233
popular high protein diets
paleo
234
popular nutritionally-balanced diets with restricted calories
weight watchers, jenny craig
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key factors that influence adherence to diet
sense of full feeling, satiety, a variety of foods
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fatigue
inability to maintain power output or force during repeated muscle contractions
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central fatigue factors
central nervous system, reduction in motor units activated and firing frequency
238
peripheral fatigue factors
neural factors, mechanical factors, energetics of contraction
239
muscle in vivo
measures fatigue of muscle in the body
240
sarcolemma and transverse tubules on fatigue
altered muscle membrane conduction and action potentials (Na and K pump can't maintain amplitude and frequency)
action potential block in the T-tubules (reduced sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca release)
241
how much should training increase per week
less than or 10% increase
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progressive resistance exercise
periodically increasing resistance to continue to overload the muscle
243
linear periodization
shift from high volume/low intensity to low volume/high intensity training
244
male strength difference over females
upper body 50% stronger
lower body 30% stronger
men exhibit greater hypertrophy long term
245
common training mistakes
overtraining
undertraining
performing non-specific exercises
lack of a long-term training plan
failure to taper
246
symptoms of overtraining
decrease in performance
loss of body weight
chronic fatigue
more infections
psychological staleness
elevated HR and blood lactate levels
247
Tapering
short term reduction in training load prior to competition to allow muscles to resynthesize glycogen and heal from training damage
248
Female Athlete Triad
low energy availability leading to menstrual dysfunction and low bone mineral density
