Final Flashcards
1
Q
Define: ATTACHMENT
A
an emotional bond w/ a specific person that’s enduring across space and time
2
Q
Describe Harry Harlow’s experiment on development of attachment.
A
Results: monkeys deprived of all early social interactions were less able to develop healthy interactions later on
Conclusion: this will be the same in humans, so it’s important for children to develop healthy social interactions early on with parents
3
Q
Define: ATTACHMENT THEORY
A
Proposed by: John Bowlby
Children are biologically predisposed to develop attachments with caregivers as a means of increasing the chances of their own survival
4
Q
Define: SECURE BASE
A
Bowlby’s term for an attachment figure’s presence that provides an infant/toddler with a sense of security that makes it possible for the infant to explore the environment
5
Q
What are the 4 phases of Bowlby’s Attachment Theory?
A
- Preattachment Phase
- Attachment-in-the-making Phase
- Clear-cut attachment
- Reciprocal Relationships
6
Q
Describe: Pre-attachment Phase of Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
A
When: Birth-6 weeks
-infant produces innate signals that bring others to his/her side and is comforted by the interaction that follows
7
Q
Describe: Attachment-in-the-Making Phase of Bowlby’s Attachment Theory
A
When: 6 weeks- 6/8 months
-infants begin to respond preferentially to familiar people
8
Q
Describe: Clear-Cut Attachment Phase of Bowlby’s attachment theory.
A
When: 6/8 months-1.5/2 yrs
-infant actively seeks contact with their regular caregivers and typically show separation protest/distress when the caregiver departs
9
Q
Describe: Reciprocal Relationships Phase of Bowlby’s attachment theory.
A
When: 1.5/2 yr and on
-children take an active role in developing working partnerships with their caregivers
10
Q
Define: INTERNAL WORKING MODEL OF ATTACHMENT
A
Child develops a mental representation of the self, of attachment figures, and of relationships in general
Function: guides children’s interactions w/ caregivers and other people in infancy and at older ages
11
Q
Describe: Strange Situation Experiment (Ainsworth)
A
Objective: Assess infants’ attachment to primary caregivers
Procedure: child is exposed to 7 episodes: 2 separations and reunions with the caregiver and interactions with a stranger when alone and when the caregiver is in the room
Conclusion: 3 Attachment categories
12
Q
What are the 4 Attachment Categories?
A
- Secure attachment
- Insecure/resistant (or ambivalent) attachment
- Insecure/avoidant attachment
- Disorganized/disoriented attachment
13
Q
Define: SECURE ATTACHMENT
A
A pattern of attachment in which an infant/child has a high-quality, relatively unambivalent relationship with his/her attachment figure
-Child will use caregivers as a secure base for exploration
14
Q
In the strange situation experiment, how would a SECURELY-ATTACHED child act when the caregiver leaves and returns?
A
Child will be upset when caregiver leaves but can recover quickly from any distress
15
Q
Define: INSECURE/RESISTANT/AMBIVALENT ATTACHMENT
A
Pattern in which infants/young children are clingy and stay close to their caregiver rather than explore the environment
16
Q
In the strange situation experiment, how would a INSECURELY/RESISTANT/AMBIVALENT-ATTACHED child act when the caregiver leaves and returns?
A
- Child will be very upset when caregiver leaves and not easily comforted by strangers
- When caregiver returns, child is not easily comforted and will both seek comfort and resist efforts by the caregiver to comfort them
17
Q
Define: INSECURE/AVOIDANT ATTACHMENT
A
Pattern in which infants/young children seem somewhat indifferent toward their caregiver and may even avoid the caregiver.
18
Q
In the strange situation experiment, how would an INSECURE/AVOIDANT-ATTACHED child act when the caregiver leaves and returns?
A
Child is indifferent when caregiver is in the room, leaves the room, and returns to the room.
-if child becomes upset when left alone, they’re as easily comforted by a stranger as by the caregiver.
19
Q
Define: DISORGANIZED/DISORIENTED ATTACHMENT
A
Pattern in which child has no consistent way of coping with stress
-Behavior is often confused or even contradictory, and often appear dazed/disoriented
20
Q
Infants in the US and Japan differ in types of insecure attachment. All insecurely attached Japanese infants are classified as insecure/resistant. Explain how Japanese culture could have promoted this type of insecure attachment.
A
Culture emphasizes dependence and closeness between Japanese infants and their mothers.
–>when denied contact w/ their mother in Strange Situation exp, Japanese infants’ response is anger and resentment
21
Q
How does the degree of secure attachment a parents has to other adults affect the degree their children develop secure attachment?
A
The more securely attached parents are to other adults, the more securely attached their children become.
22
Q
PARENTAL SENSITIVITY: function and how it’s exhibited
A
Function: contributes to the security of an infant’s attachment
Exhibited As:
- responsive caregiving when child is distressed/upset
- helping child to engage in learning situations by providing just enough, but not too much, guidance and supervision
23
Q
How can temperament of a child affect the security of a child’s attachment?
A
Differences in temperament may make it more difficult for the parents of some infants to maintain sensitivity over time
24
Q
What are the long term effects of secure attachment?
A
- Closer, more harmonious relations w/ peers than do insecurely attached children
- Predicative of positive peer and romantic relationships and emotional health in adolescence
- Predicative of higher graders and involvement in school
25
Define: SELF
A conceptual system made up of one's thoughts and attitudes about oneself
26
At what age do you have a rudimentary sense of self?
First months of life (infants)
27
At what age do individuals develop the sense of separation anxiety?
8 months
28
At what age are individuals able to recognize themselves in a mirror? In a photo?
Mirror=18-20 months
| Photo=30 months
29
At what age do individuals first start exhibiting embarrassment, shame, their self-assertive behavior, and language use that indicates their self-awareness?
2 years old
30
At what age do individuals first start to understand themselves in terms of concrete, observable characteristics related to physical attributes, physical activities/abilities, and psychological traits?
3-4 years old
31
At what age do individuals start to refine their sense of self due to social comparison?
Elementary school
32
At what age can individuals start to think in abstract terms?
Adolescents
| -in middle teen yrs, they start to agonize over the contradictions in their behavior and characteristics
33
Define: PERSONAL FABLE
A story that adolescents tell about themselves that involves beliefs in the uniqueness of their own feelings and their immortality
- form of egocentrism
- leads to notion of imaginary audience
34
Define: IMAGINARY AUDIENCE
Belief that everyone is focused on the adolescent's appearance and behavior
35
At what age does an individual's conception of self become both more integrated and less determined by what other's think?
Late adolescence/early adulthood
| -conceptions of self tend to reflect internalized personal values, beliefs, and standards
36
Define: CRISIS OF IDENTITY VS IDENTITY CONFUSION (Erik Erikson)
Chief developmental task in adolescence in which numerous aspects of self must be resolved
Aspects include: -values/goals about the future, -political/religious beliefs, -sexual identity
37
Define: IDENTITY CONFUSION
An incomplete and sometimes incoherent sense of self, with resulting feelings of isolation and depression
38
Define: IDENTITY FORECLOSURE
When an adolescent prematurely commits to an identity without adequately considering their choices
39
Define: NEGATIVE IDENTITY
An identity that represents the opposite of what is valued by people around the adolescent
40
Define: PSYCHOSOCIAL MORATORIUM (Erik Erikson)
A time-out period during which the adolescent is not expected to take on adult roles and can pursue activities that lead to self-discovery
- intended to easy the complexity of achieving an identity in modern society
- only possible in some cultures and only to the more privileged classes
41
What are the 4 identity-status categories developed by James Marcia?
1. Identity-diffusion status
2. Foreclosure status
3. Moratorium status
4. Identity-achievement status
42
Define: IDENTITY-DIFFUSION STATUS
No firm commitments and no active exploration of options
| -Will eventually move on to identity-achievement status
43
Define: FORECLOSURE STATUS
Not engaged in any identity experimentation and committed to vocational or ideological identity based on the choices/values of others
- Will NEVER move on to identity-achievement status
- tends to be adolescents w/ overly protective or employ a cold, controlling/authoritarian parenting style
44
Define: MORATORIUM STATUS
Individual is in the phase of experimentation with regard to occupational and ideological choices and has not yet made a clear commitment to them
-Will eventually move on to identity-achievement status
45
Define: IDENTITY-ACHIEVEMENT STATUS
Individual has completed a period of exploration and has achieved a coherent and consolidated identity based on personal decisions regarding occupation, ideology, and the like.
46
Define: SELF-ESTEEM
One's overall evaluation of the worth of one's self and the feelings that this evaluation engenders
-relates to how satisfied ppl are with their lives and their overall outlook
47
Of the following domains that affect self-esteem, which ones are deemed to be of higher concern for females, and which for males?
Domains: -Appearance, -Social Behavior, -Competence, -Conduct
Females: Appearance, Social Behavior
Males: Competence, Conduct
48
What are the factors that contribute to a child's self-esteem?
1. Competence in domains of importance
2. Approval and support from others (ex. peer acceptance)
3. Hereditary conditions (affects physical appearances, athletic ability, aspects of intelligence, personality)
4. Internalized standards formed by child
5. Location: school, neighborhood
49
At what age do children start to become concerned w/ winning their parents love/approval? How is their self-esteem affected by varying parental responses?
Age: 2 yr
Higher self esteem if parents are accepting and involved w/ their child and use supportive yet firm child-rearing practices
Lower self esteem/sense of worthlessness if parents reject rather than condemn child's unacceptable behavior
50
China announced a 1-child only program in 1979 which psychologists used to study how the family structure affects children's development. What were the results of this study?
There's no difference between the social behavior and personality of only childs and other children-Why: as only childs become more common, they were less likely to be spoiled
51
What are the 3 functions of families in child rearing?
1. Ensure survival of offspring by providing for their needs
2. Economic function: provide means for children to get the skills and resources they need to be economically productive adults
3. Cultural training: teach children basic values of the culture
52
What are the 3 factors that influence family dynamics and its ability to child-rear?
1. Direct/indirect influence of family members on one another; change in relationships/family structure
2. Social support from environment (ex. church)
3. Change of dynamics over time as child ages
53
Why does the feelings of closeness and support between parents and their children decrease during adolescence/puberty?
Adolescents want autonomy (independence) and newfound interests outside the home
54
Define: SOCIALIZATION
Process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that're regarded as appropriate to their present and future roles in their particular culture
55
What are the 3 ways that parents can influence their child's socialization skill development?
1. Act as direct instructors--explicitly teach them skills, rules, and strategies and provide advice
2. Act as indirect socializers--transmit skills, rules, and attitudes in the course of everyday interactions w/ children
3. Act as providers/controllers of opportunities--via their management of children's experiences and social lives
56
What are the 2 important dimensions/degrees of parenting style?
1. Level of parental warmth, support, and acceptance vs parental rejection and nonresponsiveness2. Level of parental control and demandingness
57
What are Baumrind's 4 parenting styles?
1. Authoritative Parenting2. Authoritarian Parenting3. Permissive Parenting4. Disengaged Parenting
58
Define: Authoritative Parenting
Supportive: parent is accepting and child-centered
Demanding: Parent expects much of child-relationship is reciprocal, responsive; high in bidirectional communication
59
Define: Authoritarian Parenting
Unsupportive: parent is rejecting and parent-centered
Demanding: Parent expects much of child-Relationship is controlling, power-assertive; high in unidirectional communication
60
Define: Permissive Parenting
Supportive: parenting is accepting and child-centered
Undemanding: parent expects little of child-Relationship is indulgent; low in control attempts
61
Define: Disengaged Parenting
Unsupportive: Parent is rejecting and parent-centered
Undemanding: Parent expects little of child-Relationship is rejecting/neglecting; uninvolved
62
Name 3 factors that affect parenting style.
1. Children
2. Socio-economic status (SES
3. Environment family lives in (unsafe vs safe)
63
How do children affect their parent's style of parenting?
1. Level of physical beauty
- More pretty=more (+) response from parents
2. Temperament
- More difficult=more (-) response from parents
-Children also filter and react to parental behaviors based on their own views of these behaviors which reinforces and perpetuates each party's behavior over time
64
Define: Bidirectionality of parent-child interactions
Idea that parents affect children's characteristics and vice versa
65
How does socioeconomic status (SES) of parents affect their parenting style?
1. Low SES=more likely to use an authoritarian and punitive child-rearing style
- also tend to value conformity in their children
2. High SES mothers=more likely to use a style that's accepting and democratic; also use more language w/ their children
- also tend to want their children to become self-directed and autonomous
66
What are some common effects on children who become homeless?
- poor health
- developmental delays
- cognitive and social deficits
- academic difficulties
67
Compare how mothers vs fathers interact with their children.
Mothers: more involved in child care/rearing
Fathers: less involved in child care but more involved in playing with their children (usually physically active games)
68
What factors affect the quality of sibling relationships?
1. Age- usually neg at younger ages but becomes more positive over time
2. Temperament- if more temperamentally similar, will get along better (unless both have dif temperaments)
3. Treatment From Parents- (+) if treated equally by parents, (-) if treated unequally
4. Quality of Parents' Relationship: (+) parent relationship = (+) sibling relationship
69
How has family development/structured changed over time?
- avg age of 1st marriages has increased
- maj both parents employed outside of home
- avg age of having 1st child has increased
- divorce rate is now 2x what it was (now 1/2 marriages end in divorce)
- increased # of out-of-wedlock births ("bastards")
- increased # children living w/ single parents
- increased # of remarriages
70
What are the 4 advantages of having children at an older age?
1. More financially stable, less children, and more prepared for each birth
2. More positive in their parenting of infants (unless they already have multiple children)
3. Older mothers tend to do less hours of housework -> less parenting stress
4. Older fathers are more responsive, affectionate, and stimulating w/ their infants but less likely to engage in physically exciting activities with their children
71
Which country has the HIGHEST rate of childbearing in adolescence (i.e. teen pregnancy)?
United States
72
What are 2 factors that REDUCE the risk of childbearing in adolescence?
1. Living with both biological parents
| 2. Being involved in school activities and religious organizations
73
What are 3 factors that INCREASE the risk of childbearing in adolescence?
1. Being raised in poverty by a single mom and having an older sibling and/or friends who're sexually active
2. Having a cold and uninvolved mother during early adolescence
3. Poor adolescent males prone to substance abuse and behavioral problems and have a police record are at risk for fatherhood
74
What are negative consequences of teen pregnancy to the mother and the child?
Mother: having a child blocks her opportunities for education, career development, and normal peer relationships
Child: more likely to exhibit behavior problems and cognitive delays
75
What are the 6 factors that affect the impact of divorce?
1. Level of parental conflict prior to, during, and after a divorce
-parental conflict is more neg if kid feels
caught in the middle of it (i.e. a pawn)
2. Stress experienced by the custodial parent and child in the new family arrangement
-noncustodial fathers are often permissive
and indulgent
3. Child's Age
-younger=trouble understanding, may
blame themselves (*in remarriage, young
adolescents are more negatively affected
than younger children)
4. Contact with noncustodial father
-quality, NOT frequency of contact predicts
child's ability to adjust
5. Child's temperament
-child w/ dif personalities and limited coping
capacities react more negatively to divorce
6. Custody arrangements and cooperation b/w parents
-joint legal/physical custody=best
76
How does the introduction of a step-parent affect children?
- entry of stepparent into family=threatening event for kids but easier for very young children to accept than older children/adolescents
- increased conflict b/w stepfathers and stepchildren than w/ their own biological offspring
- higher rates of depression, withdrawal, disruptive behavior
*stepmothers have more difficulty w/ stepchildren than stepfathers do
77
How do children of gay parents develop compared to those of straight parents?
- similar development in terms of adjustment, personality, and relationships w/ peers
- similar w/ regard to their gender-typed behavior & sexual orientation
- not teased more than children from straight parents
78
What are the positive and negative effects on children w/ mothers in the workforce?
* does depend on how mother is affected by her job; best if mother is consistent whether its to be employed or be a housewife
- (-) effect on early cog development if mother works long hrs during early stages of infant's life
- (-): more behavior problems in boys (esp if both parents work)
-(+): higher academic competence
79
What is the criteria for a high-quality child care program?
- caring, sensitive, available, cooperative staff members
- age appropriate activities and equipment
- good staff relations with the community
- low and age appropriate child to caregiver ratio
- trained staff and low turnover rate
- maximum group size for....
- infants/toddlers=6
- 2 yr olds=8
- 3 yr olds=14
- peers are close in age to one another
80
What is Piaget's perspective on peers?
A child should be more open, spontaneous, critical, ask for clarification, elaborate ideas, and get feedback from peers
81
What is Vygotsky's perspective on peers?
A child can learn new skills, develop cognitive capacities and cooperation skills through peer interactions
82
What is Harry Stack Sullivan's perspective on peers?
A child can gain companionship, assistance, emotional support, and experience 1st intimate, interpersonal relationships w/ peers.
83
What are the 2 general functions of friendship?
1. Support and validation
-ex. loneliness, periods of transition (ex.
elementary to highschool), buffer against
unpleasant experiences (ex. bullied),
confidants
2. Social and cognitive skills
-children learn complex play, peer normals,
& understanding of other's emotional states
84
How do friendships b/w girls differ from those b/w boys?
Girls: more intimate and provide more validation, caring and help; resolve conflict verbally but more easily
Both genders have similar amounts of fighting and meanness and amount of time spent w/ friends
85
What do friends provide to us?
- emotional support and security
- buffer against unpleasant experiences at school and general feelings of loneliness
- context for the development of social skills & formation of positive relationships w/ others
- avenues for social and cognitive development
86
What is the effects of friendships on psychological functioning and behavior over time?
- depends on the type of friend b/c of bidirectional relationships
- generally, positive psychological adjustment over time
- antisocial friends could have a detrimental influence
87
What are the 5 factors considered when a child chooses his/her friends?
1. Proximity: friends=peers who're physically nearby
2. Age: friends=within their age group
3. Sex: friends=same sex as themself
4. Race: friends=of the same culture (but this varies across cultures & locales)
5. By the age of (i.e. maturity): friends=those w/ similar interests and behaviors
88
What are the sociometrics used to evaluate friendship status?
- popular: liked by maj of peers
- rejected: disliked by maj of peers
- average: liked and disliked by an avg # of peers
- neglected: maj peers feel neutral towards them ("don't care")
- controversial: liked by a large # of peers but also disliked by a large # of peers
89
Define: Sociometric status
A measurement that reflects the degree to which someone is liked/disliked by their peers as a group
90
How does the sociometric status of a child affect the number of academic/behavioral problems that they have? (Problems= retained, truant (i.e. playing hooky), suspended, dropped out, other)
Popular: has the fewest problems
-Problems=retained, truant, dropped out, other
Average: biggest problem=dropped out
-Problems=retained, truant, suspended, dropped out, problems w/police, other
Neglected: equal distribution of problems
-Problems=retained, truant, suspended, problems w/police, other
Rejected: has the most problems
-Problems=All of them with all of them occurring 15% of higher (other is almost 70%)
91
Define: Emotional Intelligence
Def: A set of abilities that contribute to competent social functioning
-it's a better predictor than IQ of how well ppl will do in life, esp in their socal lives
92
What is competent social functioning?
Being able to...
1. Motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustration
2. Control impulses and delay gratification
3. Identify and understand one's own and others' feelings
4. Regulate one's moods
5. Regulate the expression of emotion in social interactions
6. Empathize with others' emotions
93
Define: Emotion
Characterized by a motivational force/action tendency and by changes in physiology, subjective feelings, and overt behavior
94
What are the 2 theories on the nature and emergence of emotion?
1. Discrete Emotions Theory
| 2. The Functionalist Approach
95
Define: Discrete Emotions Theory
Emotions are innate and discrete from one another starting very early on in life
-each emotion is packaged w/ a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions
96
Define: The Functionalist Approach
- emphasis on the role of the environment in emotional development
- function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal
- emotions are NOT discrete from one another & vary based on social environment
97
What is the first physical sign of happiness?
Smiling
98
Define: Social Smiles
Smile that first develops when an infant is 6-7 weeks old
| -smile is directed towards people
99
How does the meaning of your smile change with age? (starting w/ as an infant)
1. 6-7 weeks: Social smile
2. 7 months: smile at familiar people rather than at ppl in general
3. 3-4 months: smile + laugh during activities
4. 2 yr: Clown stage: delighted when they can make other people laugh
100
What order do neg emotions develop in starting from birth?
1. Generalized distress
2. 2 months: facial expression of anger&sadness look dif from distress&pain
3. 2 yr: clear differentiation b/w neg emotions displayed (words play a role too now)
101
How does fear develop as you age?
1. 6-7 months: 1st clear signs of fear; when unfamiliar ppl no longer provide the same level of comfort and please that familiar ppl do
2. 7 month: Specific fears (ex. loud noises) are evident but declines after 1 yr
3. 2 yr: fear of strangers intensifies up until this age
102
Define: Separation Anxiety
Feelings of distress that children experience when they're separated, or expected to be separated, from individuals to whom they are attached (type of fear)
-increases from 8 to 13/15 months but then declines
103
Define: Self-Conscious Emotions
Emotions that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions us
-includes, guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride
104
How do self-conscious emotions develop as you age?
1. 15-24 months: child starts to show embarrassment when they're made the center of attention
2. 3 yr: child's pride is increasingly tied to their level of performance
105
What is guilt associated with? Is shame associated with the same things?
Associated w/ empathy for others and involves feelings of remorse and regrets and the desire to make amends.
NO shame isn't related to concern about others
BUT, whether child experiences guilt or shame partly depends on parental practices
106
What are the new sources/causes of emotions when a child has reached middle childhood?
Happiness & Pride=acceptance by peers and achieving goals
Fears=real-life imp issues instead of imaginary creatures
Anger=perceptions of others' motives and intentions
Overall decrease in intensity and neg emotions with age in preschool & early school yrs
107
What are the possible causes for depression?
- genetic & family factors
- maladaptive belief symptoms
- feelings of powerlessness
- negative beliefs & self-perceptions
- lack of social skills
108
Define: Emotional Self-Regulation
The process of initiating, inhibiting, or modulating internal feeling states, emotion-related physiological processes, and emotion-related cognitions or behaviors in the service of accomplishing one's goals
109
What are the 3 patterns in developing self-regulation?
1. Transition from regulation by others to self regulation
2. Use of cognitive strategies to control neg emotions
3. Ability to select strategies appropriate for the situation
110
Describe the Transition To Self-Regulation.
1. First months of life: parents help infants regulate their emotional arousal by controlling their exposure to stimulating events
2. 6 months: infants can reduce their distress by averting their gaze & sometimes by self-soothing
3. 1-2yr: infants increasingly turn their attention to non-distressing objects/ppl to distract themselves from sources of distress
4. begin to rely more on themselves when they must delay gratification, rely on language to manage emotional arousal and regulate expression of neg emotions, and increases in adults' expectations children & to age-related improvement in the ability to inhibit motor behavior
111
Describe the Use of Cognitive Strategies to Control Neg Emotions
1. Younger children: use behavior strategies
-distracting themselves w/ play
2. Older children: use cognitive strategies
-mentally distracting themselves from neg
event or trying to see things in a positive light
112
What aids our ability to select strategies appropriate situation?
1. Increasing capacity to distinguish b/w stressors that can be controlled and those that cannot be
2. Ability to choose the most effective strategies for managing their reactions to these stressors
113
Define: Social Competence
The ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships w/ others
-affected by your level of capability of emotional regulation
114
Define: Temperament
The constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation that demonstrate consistency across situations, as well as relative stability over time
115
What are the 3 categories of infant temperament? (Stella Chess, Alexander Thomas)
1. Easy Babies
2. Difficult Babies
3. Slow to Warm Up Babies
116
Define: Easy Babies
Adjust readily to new experiences, quickly establish routines and are generally cheerful in mood and easy to calm
117
Define: Difficult Babies
Slow to adjust to new experiences, likely to react negatively and intensely to stimuli and events, and irregular in their bodily functions
118
Define: Slow-To-Warm-Up Babies
Somewhat difficult at first but become easier over time
119
What criticisms are there towards Thomas and Chess's approach to categorizing babies based on temperament?
- positive and neg emotions should be assessed as sep components of temperament
- should differentiate among types of neg emotionality
- should assess dif types of regulatory capacity
120
What are the 6 dimensions of temperament?
1. Fearful distress
2. Irritable distress
3. Attention span/persistence
4. Activity level
5. Positive affect
6. Rhythmicity
121
Define: Personality
The pattern of behavioral and emotional propensities, beliefs and interests, and intellectual capacities that characterize an individual
-has its roots in temperament BUT is shaped by interactions w/ the social & physical world
-esp in interactions w/ parents' and
grandparents' socialization practices
122
How does the role of parents influence a child's personality?
1. Quality of parent-child relationship influences child's sense of security & self-esteem --> affects child's emotionality, understanding of emotion, emotional self regulation & emotional responses to ppl and events in their world
2. Type of parental emotions a child is exposed to may affect their level of distress & arousal, their view about themselves & others in their social world
3. Parents' reaction to child's emotions
- if parents dismiss/criticize chid's emotions, child interprets that their feelings aren't valid --> child will be less emotionally & socially competent
123
Define: Socialization
The processes by which individuals, through experience w/ others, develop the skills & ways of thinking and feeling, as well as standards and values, that allow them to adapt to their group & live with other people
124
How does a child's ability to identify the emotions of others develop as they grow older?
1. 4-7 month: can distinguish certain emotional expression (happiness, surprise)
2. 8-12 month: demonstrate social referencing
3. 3 yr: rudimentary ability to label a narrow range of emotional expression
4. 3-5 yr: understand dif b/w real & fake emotions and emotional display rules
5. 5-7 yr: realize that they can feel 2 compatible emotions simultaneously
6. preschool-school yrs: can understand the kinds of situations that typically evoke dif emotions in others
125
Define: Social Referencing
The use of a parent's facial, gestural, or vocal cues to decide how to deal w/ novel, ambiguous, or possible situations
126
Define: Display Rules
A social group's norms about when, where, and how much one should show emotions and when and where emotion should be suppressed/masked
127
Define: Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)
- Behavior is motivated by the need to satisfy basic biological drives
- Emphasizes the continuity of individual differences, maintaining that experiences shape subsequent development
- Series of universal development stages in which psychic energy becomes focused in dif erogenous zones
128
Define: Psychic Energy
The biologically based, instinctual drives that energize behavior, thoughts & feelings
129
Define: Erogenous Zones
Areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development
130
What are the 3 parts of Freud's Personality Structure
1. Id
-the biological drives w/ which infant is born,
earliest, most primitive personality structure,
unconscious & operates w/ the goal of seeking
pleasure
2. Ego
-emerges in 1st yr, it is the rational, logical,
problem-solving component of personality
3. Superego
-develops during 3-6 yr, based on child's
internalization/adoption of the parents'
attributes, beliefs & standards as their own
131
What are the 5 stages of psychosexual development?
1. Oral (1st yr): primary source satisfaction/pleasure is oral activity; mother is established as the strongest love-object
2. Anal (1-3 yr): primary pleasure source=pooping
3. Phallic (3-6 yr): localization of pleasure in genitalia
4. Latency (6-12 yr): channeling of sexual energy into socially acceptable activities
5. Genital (12+ yr): sexual maturation is complete & sex becomes a maj goal
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Define: Oedipus Complex (Freud)
A psychosocial conflict in which a boy experiences a form of sexual desire for his mother & wants an exclusive relationship with her and develops a hostility towards his father
-to reach superego development, boys must resolve this by identifying w/ his father
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Define: Electra Complex (Freud)
A psychosocial conflict in which a girl experiences erotic feelings toward the father
-->results in females developing a weaker conscience than boys b/c it does not get resolved
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What are the 5 stages of psychosocial development?
1. Trust vs. Mistrust (1st yr): developing trust in other ppl=crucial issue
2. Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 yr): challenge=to achieve a strong sense of autonomy while adjusting to increased social demands
3. Initiative vs. Guild (3-6 yr): resolved when child develops high standards & the initiative to meet them w/out being crushed by worry about not being able to measure up
4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yr): must master cognitive & social skills, learn to work industriously & play well w/ others
5. Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence): must resolve the question of who they really are or live in confusion about what roles they should play as adults
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What is John Watson's opinion on child development?
Determined by their social environment & that learning through conditioning is the primary mechanism of development
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Define: Systematic Desensitization
A form of therapy based on classical conditioning: debilitating responses (i.e. irrational fears) to a given stimulus are gradually deconditioned
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What did B.F. Skinner discover in his research on the nature & function of reinforcement?
- Attention=a powerful reinforcer
- The difficulty of extinguishing behavior that's been intermittently reinforced
- ->reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior
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Define: Social Learning Theory (Bandura)
Learning theory that emphasizes observation & imitation as the primary mechanisms of development rather than reinforcement
- child's tendency to reproduce what they saw depends on whether the person whose actions they observed was rewarded or punished
- reciprocal determinism
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Define: Reciprocal Determinism (Bandura)
Child-environment influences operate in both directions
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Define: Perceived Self-Efficacy
An individuals beliefs about how effectively he/she can control his/her own behavior, thoughts & emotions in order to achieve a desired goal
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Define: Self-Socialization
Child's active shaping of his/her own development through their activity preferences, friendship choices & other behaviors
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Define: Role Taking Theory (Selman)
Being aware of/the ability to adopt the perspective of another person, thereby better understanding that person’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings
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Describe the 4 stages of Selman's Role Taking Theory.
1. (6-8 yr): Child comes to appreciate that another person can have a dif perspective from their own, BUT attribute this to the other person's not having the same info they do
2. (8-10 yr): Child becomes able to think about the other person's point of view
3. (10-12 yr): Child can systematically compare their own and the other's points of view
4. (12+ yr): Adolescents can compare another person's perspective to that of a generalized other
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Define: Dodge's Information-Processing Approach
- Emphasizes the crucial role of cog processes in social behavior
- Children go through 6 steps to solve social problems
- found that highly aggressive children seem to have a hostile attribution bias
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What are the 6 steps of Dodge's Information-Processing Approach to solve social problems?
1. Encode a problematic event
2. Interpret the social cues involved in it
3. Formulate a goal to resolve the incident
4. Generate strategies to achieve the goal
5. Evaluate the potential strategies
6. Enact a behavior
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Define: Hostile Attribution Bias
An expectation that others are hostile to them, which becomes a self-fulfilling prophecy
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Define: Dweck's Social Cognitive Perspective
- Emphasizes the role of self-attributions in academic achievement
- Children w/ a MASTERY ORIENTATION attribute success & failure to the amount of effort expended & persist in the face of failure
- Children w/ a HELPLESS ORIENTATION attribute success & failure to enduring aspects of the self (such as ability) & tend to give up in the face of failure
- Children w/ an ENTITY THEORY of intelligence tend to think that a person's level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
- Children w/ an INCREMENTAL THEORY of intelligence believe that intelligence can increase as a function of experience
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Define: Parental-Investment Theory
-Emphasizes the evolutionary basis of many aspect of parental behavior, including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring
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Define: Evolutionary Psychology's View of Development
Radical departures from the species-typical environment could have neg consequences on development
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Define: Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model
-Presents the child's environment as composed of a series of nested structures, with every level having an impact on development
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What are the 5 levels of Bronfenbrenner's Bioecological Model?
1. Microsystem: immediate, bi-direction environment that a person experiences
2. Mesosystem: the connections among various microsystems
3. Exosystem: environmental setting that the person doesn't experience directly but that can affect the person indirectly
4. Macrosystem: larger cultural context w/in which the other systems are embedded
5. Chronosystem: historical changes that influence the other systems
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What are kids with ADHD like?
-have normal intelligence but have difficulty sticking to plans, following rules/regulations, and persevering on tasks that require sustained attention
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What are 5 effects of exposure to media violence?
1. Teaches new behaviors & inspires imitation
2. Increases the accessibility of the viewer's own aggressive thoughts and feelings
3. Creates heightened physiological arousal that makes viewers more likely to react violently to provocations after watching violent material
4. May lead to emotional desensitization
5. Decreased physical activity
