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Child Psychology > Exam 2 (Ch 5-8) > Flashcards

Exam 2 (Ch 5-8) Flashcards

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1
Q

Define: Sensation

A

The processing of basic info from the external world by the sensory receptors in the sense organs and brain.

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2
Q

Define: Brain

A

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory info about the objects, events, and spatial layout of our surrounding world.

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3
Q

What are 2 ways of studying visual perception?

A
  1. Preferential-looking Technique

2. Habituation

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4
Q

Define: Preferential-Looking Technique

A
  • Show infants 2 patterns or 2 objects at a time to see if the infants have a preference for one over the other
  • a technique to study visual perception/visual acquity
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5
Q

Define: Habituation

A
  • Repeatedly presenting an infant with a given stimulus until the response declines
  • *if infant’s response increases when a novel stimulus is presented, the researcher infers that the baby can discriminate between the old and new stimuli
  • a technique to study visual percerption
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6
Q

Why do infants prefer to look at patterns of high visual contrast?

A

Because infants have poor contrast sensitivity due to the different cone size, shape, and spacing in the eye that infants have from adults (infant cones only catch 2% of incoming light while adults’ catch 65%)

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7
Q

Define: Contrast Sensitivity

A

The ability to detect differences in light and dark areas in a visual pattern.

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8
Q

Define: Visual Acquity

A

How well someone can see.

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9
Q

Define: Cones

A

The light sensitive neurons that are highly concentrated in the fovea

-Role: to process color info and fine detail

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10
Q

Define: Fovea

A

The central region of the retina

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11
Q

Compare how a 1 month old vs a 2 month old A) visually scans and B) visually tracks an object.

A

SCANNING:
1 month old: scan perimeters of shapes

2 month old: scans perimeters AND interiors of shapes

TRACKING:
1 and 2 month old: cannot follow object’s path smoothly, is jerky

-it’s not until 3 months of age that infants can track an object SMOOTHLY (no jerky movements)

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12
Q

From birth, infants are drawn to faces. What are some possible explanations for this?

A
  1. General bias towards configurations with more elements in the upper half than in the lower half
  2. By looking at real faces, infant comes to recognize and prefer its own mother’s face after 12 cumulative hours of exposure
  3. Infant will come to understand the significance of dif facial expressions
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13
Q

How are infants affected by attractive faces?

A
  1. Infants will look at faces seen as more attractive for longer
  2. Infants interact more positively with people with attractive faces
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14
Q

Define: Subjective Contour

A

Visual illusion that evoke the perception of an edge without the aid of a luminance or color change across the edge.

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15
Q

Define: Perceptual Constancy/Size Constancy

A

The perception of objects being of constant size, shape, color, etc., in spite of physical differences in the retinal image of the object

-present in both infants and adults

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16
Q

What is the empiricists’ stance on the origin of perceptual constancy?

A

It develops as a function of experience.

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17
Q

What is the nativists’ stance on the origin of perceptual constancy?

A

It comes from the inherent properties of the nervous system.

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18
Q

How could you determine if an infant had mastered perceptual/size constancy?

A

If, when the infant is present with 2 cubes at different distances with the larger cube being farther away, infant will stare longer at the larger cube farther away.

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19
Q

How do infants segregate objects compared to adults?

A

Infants: use COMMON movement to perceive object segregation (ex. if two separate objects move together at the same time, velocity, and direction, infant will perceive these 2 objects as being 1 whole)

Adults: use general knowledge about the world to perceive object segregation

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20
Q

Define: Optical Expansion

A

A depth cue in which an object blocks increasingly more of the background–>indicating that the object is approaching.

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21
Q

Define: Binocular Disparity

A

Difference in object location seen by the right vs the left eye.

-Used by the brain to calculate depth information regarding the object.

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22
Q

Define: Stereopsis

-When does this develop in infants?

A

Brain’s process for calculating the degree of disparity between the eyes’ differing neural signals and produces the perception of depth.

-Emerges suddenly at 4 months

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23
Q

Define: Object Segregation

A

The ability to identify separate objects within a visual array.

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24
Q

Define: Monocular Cues

-When does this develop in infants?

A

A depth cue that needs only 1 eye to be perceived.

-Develops at 6-7 months

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25
Q

Define: Pictorial Cues

-When does this develop in infants?

A
  • Used to portray depth in pictures/paintings
  • Also only needs 1 eye to be perceived

-Develops at 6-7 months

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26
Q

Up until what age do children continue to treat pictures (2D objects) as though they were real objects (3D objects)?

A

19 months.

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27
Q

Define: Auditory Localization

A

Perception of the location in space of a sound source

-Newborns already have this skill–will turn head towards source of sound

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28
Q

When does the sensitivity to taste and smell develop?

A

Develops before birth.

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29
Q

Define: Intermodal Perception

A

The combining of info from 2 or more sensory systems.

-Present from very early in life

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30
Q

Define: Neonatal Reflexes

A

Tightly organized patterns of action present in a newborn

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31
Q

Give 5 examples of neonatal reflexes.

A
  1. Grasping: closing fingers around anything that presses against the palm of their hand
  2. Rooting: turning their head in the direction of touch and opening their mouth.
  3. Sucking: set off by contact with nipple
  4. Swallowing: triggered by sucking
  5. Tonic Neck: when head turns/is turned to one side, the arm on that side of the body extends while the arm and knee on the other side flex (i.e. baby is trying to get/keep its hand in view)
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32
Q

Define: Stepping Reflex

A

Infant lifts first 1 leg and then the other in a coordinated pattern resembling walking

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33
Q

When/why does the stepping reflex disappear?

A

When: 2 months old

Why: Infants’ rapid weight gain in the first few weeks after birth causes their legs to get heavier faster than they get stronger

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34
Q

What was Gesell and McGraw’s theory on the factor that governed motor development.

A

-Motor development depended on the rate of maturation of the neural cortex.

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35
Q

What are the current theories on the factors that govern motor development?

A

-Combination of many factors including neural mechanisms, increase in strength, posture, control, balance, perceptual skill, and motivation.

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36
Q

Define: Prereaching Movements

A

Clumsy swiping movements by young infants toward the general vicinity of objects they see.

-Goes away at around 3-4 months when they begin to successfully reach objects

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37
Q

What is a child’s reaching ability at….

  • 3 months
  • 7 months
  • 10 months
A
  • 3 months: can successfully grab objects
  • 7 months: can sit independently which makes reaching quite stable
  • 10 months: approach to object is dependent on what they intend to do with the object
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38
Q

What did Karen Adolph discover about infant locomotion and slopes?

A

Infants do not transfer what they learned about crawling down slopes to how to walk down them.

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39
Q

What is a child’s locomotive ability at…

  • 8 months
  • 13 months
A
  • 8 months: can crawl (Self-Locomotion)

- 13 months: can walk independently

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40
Q

Define: Self-Locomotion

A

Ability to move around in the environment on your own.

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41
Q

Define: Scale Errors

A

Attempt to perform an action with a miniature replica object that is much too small for the action to be completed.

  • Due to a failure to integrate visual info represented in 2 dif areas of the brain in the service of action
  • Incidence of scale errors decrease as we grow older
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42
Q

Parents keep putting babies on their backs to sleep to reduce the risk of SIDS but now babies are less likely to roll over on time (in terms of developmental milestones). Why could this be?

A
  1. Less motivation to roll over b/c better view from their backs
  2. Less time spent on tummies results in slower development of arm strength
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43
Q

Describe the Visual Cliff Research Study. What does the visual cliff research show about development?

A

Big sheet of plexiglass is put on top of a box. On half the glass, a sheet of checkered print is placed. The same design is placed on box floor and a divider paper is put in the middle of glass–>causes illusion of the edge of a “cliff”.

Task: infant must cross over the drop area to its mother

Result: infants would not pass the deep side of the cliff

Conclusion:Interdependence of dif domains of development
-Infant perceives and understands the significance of the depth cue of relative size (cliff’s drop)

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44
Q

Define: Social Referencing

A

The use of another’s emotional reaction to interpret an ambiguous situation

-Appears to be important in infant’s development of wariness of heights

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45
Q

Define: Habituation

A

A decrease in responsiveness to repeated stimulation

-reveals that learning has occurred

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46
Q

What is the speed of infant habituation indicative of?

A

Reflects the general efficiency of the infant’s processing of info (i.e. general cognitive ability)

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47
Q

Define: Differentiation

A

The extraction of stable/invariant elements from the constantly changing stimulation/events in the environment

ex. association b/w voice tone and facial expression

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48
Q

Define: Affordances

A

Possibilities for actions offered by objects and situations.

ex. light objects can be picked up easier than heavy objects

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49
Q

Define: Statistical Learning

A

Picking up info from the environment, forming associations among stimuli that occur in a statistically predictable pattern

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50
Q

Define: Classical Conditioning

A

Form of learning consisting of associations between an initially neutral stimulus with a stimulus that always evokes a reflexive response

-plays a role in infant’s everyday learning about the relations between environmental events that have relevance for them

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51
Q

What are the 4 components of classical conditioning?

A
  1. Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
  2. Unconditioned response (UCR)
  3. Conditioned stimulus (CS)
  4. Conditioned response (CR)
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52
Q

Define: Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

A

A stimulus that evokes a reflexive response

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53
Q

Define: Unconditioned response (UCR)

A

A reflexive response that is elicited by the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

54
Q

Define: Conditioned stimulus (CS)

A

The neutral stimulus that is repeatedly paired with the UCS

55
Q

Define: Conditioned response (CR)

A

The originally reflexive response that comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.

56
Q

Define: Instrumental/Operant Conditioning

A

Learning the relation between one’s own behavior and the consequences that result from it

-Involves positive reinforcement

57
Q

Define: Positive Reinforcement

A

A reward that reliably follows a behavior and increases the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

58
Q

Define: Negative Reinforcement

A

Application of reinforcement that DECREASES the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

59
Q

Define: Contingency Relation

A

A reward caused by the individual’s behavior which increases the likelihood of the behavior being repeated

  • could also be a punishment
    ex. push button, I get candy
60
Q

Define: Observational Learning/Imitation

A
  • 6-9 month olds will imitate actions they’ve seen
  • pay attention to the reason for person’s behavior
  • will imitate people, but not inanimate objects
  • will imitate intentions a person has, not what person actually does
61
Q

What do researchers now believe about an infant’s sense of object permanence?

A
  • Piaget’s description is wrong

- Infants are able to mentally represent and think about the existence of invisible objects and events

62
Q

Define: Violation-Of-Expectancy Procedure

A

Infants are shown an event that should evoke surprise/interest if it violates something the infant knows or assumes to be true

-Used to prove object permanence is present in infants.

How: infants will looks at “impossible” events for longer than at “possible” events

63
Q

What quality must inanimate objects have in order for infants to attribute intention and goals to them?

A

Inanimate entities must “behave” like humans

64
Q

What are the 3 things language development involves?

A
  1. Language generativity
    • How much language you produce
  2. Semantic development
    • learning to express meaning; includes word learning
  3. Pragmatic development
    - Social use; how to tailor language to your audience
65
Q

Define: Phoneme

A

The basic unit of sound used to produce language

66
Q

Define: Phonological Development

A

The acquisition of knowledge about the sound systems of one’s own language.

67
Q

Define: Morpheme

A

The smallest unit of meaningful sound, usually 1 or 2 phonemes

68
Q

Define: Syntax

A

The rules for the ways in which words can be combined to make sense (word order)

69
Q

Define: Syntactic Development

A

Learning the rules for combining words in a given language

70
Q

Define: Metalinguistic Knowledge

A

Knowledge about language; its properties and how it’s used in conversing

71
Q

What does it mean when we say that that “language is a SPECIES-SPECIFIC behavior”?

A

Species-specific in that only humans acquire language in the normal course of development in their normal enviroment

72
Q

For 90% of right-handed people, which hemisphere controls language?

A

Left hemisphere

73
Q

Why is language “species-universal”?

A

Because all young humans must learn language

74
Q

Define: Broca’s aphasia

A

Damage/trauma to Broca’s area in the brain

-Results in difficulty producing speech

75
Q

Define: Wernicke’s aphasia

A

Damage/trauma to Wernicke’s area in the brain

-Results in jumbled speech that makes no sense and trouble comprehending language

76
Q

When is the critical period for language development?

A

Critical Period=under 5 yrs old

  • after age 5, language acquisition is more difficult and less successful
  • Critical period=time during which language develops most readily
77
Q

Who is Victor the “Wild Child”?

A
  • Kid abandoned by his parents and lived in the woods near Aveyron, France
  • Discovered in 1800, he was 12 yrs old, walked on all 4s and frightened of people
  • No language ability at all

-After years of intense socialization, Victor could act appropriately in social situations but CANNOT learn more than a few words

78
Q

Is having a brain enough to result in sufficient language development?

A

NO

  • Need exposure to other people and using language with them
  • Listening and understanding what others are saying
79
Q

Define: Infant-Directed Speech (IDS)

A

A distinctive mode of speech used by adults in talking to infants and young children, even while recognizing that they cannot talk back

-Tones and pitches used to indicate emotion are universal across cultures

80
Q

Define: Prosody

A

The characteristic rhythm, cadence, melody, and tonal pattern with which a language is spoken

81
Q

Define: Categorical Perception

A

Phenomenon where infants and adults can perceive speech sounds as belonging to discrete categories (such as that /b/ and /p/ are on a similar acoustic continuum but are dif sounds)

82
Q

In the first months of life, how does an infant’s vocal cords prepare for speech production?

A

Through…

  • crying
  • sneezing
  • sighing
  • burping
  • lip-smacking

Then at 6-8 weeks, simple speech sounds like…

  • goo
  • ooohh
  • aahh
83
Q

Define: Babbling

A

Production of syllables made up of a consonant followed by a vowel (ex. ba, pa, ma)
-starts at 7 months

-deaf infants exposed to american sign language will babble manually by making repetitive hand movements that’re components of ASL signs

84
Q

Name 2 characteristics of interactive games parents play with their children to facilitate communication development.

A
  1. Intersubjectivity

2. Joint Attention

85
Q

Define: Intersubjectivity

A

Parent and infant share a common focus of attention

86
Q

Define: Joint Attention

A

The parent follows the baby’s head and comments on what the baby is doing/looking at.

87
Q

Define: Holophrasic Period

A

The period in which a whole phrase is expressed by a single word

ex. “drink” can refer to a desire for juice, as could “juice”

88
Q

Define: Overextension of meaning

A

Using a given world broadly, such as “doggie” for any four-legged creature

89
Q

Define: Fast Mapping

A

Children learn new words from the context of their use and from comparison to words already known.

90
Q

Define: Pragmatic Cues

A

The social contexts in which language is used

91
Q

How do children use pragmatic cues?

A
  • Use an adult’s focus of attention as a cue to word meaning
  • Draw inferences about a word’s meaning from what’s being done as the word is used
  • Infer meaning from the linguistic context in which new word appears
92
Q

Define: Shape Bias

A

Extension of a novel noun to novel objects of the same shape, even when the objects differ dramatically in size, color, and texture

ex. Child who has a heard a U-shaped wooden block called a “dax” will use “dax” to refer to another U-shaped object of a dif color or texture

93
Q

Define: Syntactic Bootstrapping

A

Using the grammatical structure of whole sentences to figure out meaning, inferring that an assigned word is descriptive of action

94
Q

When does a child begin to understand whole sentences?

A

-13 months: will understand that words used in combination have a meaning separate from the meaning of the individual words

  • 2 yr: can combine words into simple sentences
  • first sentences are telegraphic speech=2 word utterances in which nonessential elements are missing
95
Q

What is the result of Overregularization Errors?

A

The irregular word forms get treated as they were the regular word forms

ex. Mans instead of Man
ex. Goed instead of Go

-BUT this indicates child’s awareness that word form changes with meaning

96
Q

What is the function of private speech?

A

Acts as a self-regulatory function that helps child to organize his/her actions

97
Q

Define: Collective Monologues

A

Piaget’s term for children’s talk with their peers

98
Q

What are the 2 ways parents help children produce coherent accounts of past events?

A
  1. Scaffolding=asking questions

2. Helping them fill in the blanks

99
Q

What is the universal agreement of language development?

A

Children develop language as a result of the interaction between the brain and language exposure–nature and nuture

100
Q

What are the 3 styles of learning language?

A
  1. Referential/Analytic Style
  2. Expressive/Holistic Style
  3. Wait-And-See Style
101
Q

Define: Style (language development context)

A

Strategies young children use when beginning to speak

102
Q

Define: Referential/Analytic Style

A

Speech strategy that analyzes the speech stream into individual phonetic elements and words
-The first utterances of children who adopt this style tend to use isolated, often monosyllabic words

103
Q

Define: Expressive/Holistic Style

A

Speech strategy that gives more attention to the overall sound of language (rhythmic and intonational patterns) than to the phonetic elements of which it is composed

104
Q

Define: Wait-And-See Style

A

Speech strategy that typically involves a late start in speaking but a large vocabulary once speaking begins
-Thought to be due to child just listening to speech for long time before trying it out themself

105
Q

Define: Fast Mapping

A

The process of rapidly learning a new word simply from hearing the contrastive use of a familiar and the unfamiliar word

106
Q

What is the NATIVIST VIEW (CHOMSKY) on language development?

A
  • humans have an innate “universal grammar” that’s common to all languages which makes learning possible
  • brain has innate language systems separate from other cognitive functions (modularity hypothesis)
107
Q

Define: Universal Grammar

A

A set of highly abstract, unconscious rules that are common to all languages

-Developed by Chomsky

108
Q

Define: Modularity Hypothesis

A

Brain contains a self-contained language module that is separate from other aspects of cognitive functioning

109
Q

What is the INTERACTIONIST VIEW on language development?

A
  • Everything is influenced by its communicative function
  • Language is primarily a social skill
  • Structural properties (that nativists think are innate) are mastered in the process of learning to communicate with others
110
Q

What is the CONNECTIONIST VIEW on language development?

A
  • Info needed to acquire language is contained in language itself
  • not based on innate linguistic knowledge or special language-specific brain mechanism BUT ON general-purpose learning mechanisms
  • language develops as a result of the gradual strengthening of connections in the neural network

*neural network=numerous interconnected processing units

111
Q

Define: Object Substitutions

A

Use of one object for a purpose it doesn’t traditionally have

ex. using a banana as a phone

112
Q

What is the most commonly drawn 1st object?

A

A human figure

113
Q

Define: Concepts

A

General ideas/understandings that can be used to group together objects, events, qualities or abstractions that are similar in some way
-needed for helping people make sense of the world

114
Q

What is the nativist’s view on concepts?

A

Innate understanding of concepts plays a central role in development.

115
Q

What is the empiricist’s view on concepts?

A

Concepts arise from basic learning mechanisms

116
Q

What 2 questions does dividing objects encountered in the world into categories help children answer?

A
  1. What kinds of things are in the world?

2. How are those things related to each other?

117
Q

What are the 3 categories children sort objects into?

A
  1. Inanimate objects
  2. People
  3. Living Things
118
Q

Define: Category Hierarchies

A
  • Method of sorting objects
  • Categories are related by set-subset relations
  • ex. Furniture/Chair/Armchair
119
Q

Define: Perceptual Categorization

A

The grouping together of objects that have similar appearances

-done by infants

120
Q

What are an infant’s categorization based on? How about a 2 yr old?

A

Infants: Parts of an object rather than on the object as a whole.

2 yr old: start to categorize objects on the 1) basis of overall shape and 2) the basis of function (what object can do)

  • increased understanding of category hierarchies
  • increased understanding of causal connections
121
Q

What are the 3 main levels of category hierarchies?

A
  1. Superordinate Level
    • Very general one
  2. Subordinate Level
    • Very specific one
  3. Basic Level
    • One in between the other 2 levels
122
Q

Which level of category hierarchies do children learn first?

A

Basic level
Why: Because objects at this level share many common characteristics but are also relatively easy to discriminate between

123
Q

Define: Child-basic Categories

A

A level sometimes formed by children in category hierarchies

-Generality is between basic and subordinate level categories

124
Q

Define: Naive Psychology

A

A commonsense level of understanding other people and oneself

125
Q

What are the 2 concepts that we always apply when trying to understand why someone did something?

A
  1. Desires

2. Beliefs

126
Q

What are the 3 properties of Naive Psychology concepts?

A
  1. They refer to invisible mental states
  2. The concepts are all linked to each other in cause-effect relations
  3. They develop early in life
127
Q

What are the 3 things crucial for psychological understanding that 2.5 yr olds start to grasp?

A
  1. Intention
    • The goal of acting in a certain way
  2. Joint Attention
    • 2 or more people focus deliberately on the same referent
  3. Intersubjectivity
    - The mutual understanding that people share during communication
128
Q

At these ages, what can children understand?

  • 2 yr old
  • 3 yr old
  • 5 yr old
A

2 yr old: connection b/w other people’s desires and their specific actions BUT show little understanding that beliefs are also influential

3 yr old: desires and beliefs affect behavior BUT has difficulty with false-belief problems

5 yr old: find false-belief problems very easy

129
Q

Define: False-Belief Problems

A

Tasks that test a child’s understanding that other people will act in accord with their own beliefs even when the child knows that these beliefs are incorrect

130
Q

Define: Theory-Of-Mind-Module (TOMM)

A

A hypothesized brain mechanism devoted to understanding other human beings

  • Interactions w/ other people is crucial for developing TOMM
  • General info-processing skills are necessary for children to understand people’s minds

Child Psychology (4 decks)

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