FINAL Flashcards
What are the cellular functions of life? (7)
1) metabolism
2) nutrition
3) response
4) excretion of wastes
5) growth & development
6) reproduction
7) homeostasis
What are the types of stem cells? (3)
1) embryonic - pluripotent
2) adult stem cells - multipotent
3) induced pluripotent stem cells
What does the rate of substances crossing the membrane depend on?
surface area - if the cell is larger, there is more to do
What increases faster in a cell? volume or surface area?
volume
What is the problem when the volume is too large?
more food needed and more waste made
What is the formula for magnification?
size of image/actual size of object
How many µm are in 1mm?
1000 µm
What is the formula for actual size of an object?
size of an image/magnification
What is the formula for magnification using the scale line?
length of the scale line measured/ length of scale line given
solvent
dissolver
solute
what is being dissovled
hydration shell
water molecules around a solute due to their polar attraction to each other
What does water have a high specific heat capacity and high heat of vaporization?
because of its hydrogen bonds that take a high amount of heat to break
What are the types of proteins in a membrane? (6)
1) Junction: join cells together
2) Enzymatic: speed up chemical reactions at the membrane
3) Transport: channels and pumps move things across the membrane
4) Recognition: helps cells identify other cells and viruses
5) Anchorage: attachment point for cytoskeleton and extracellular matrix
6) Transduction: bind chemical messengers and send signals to within the cell
What can cholesterol do? (3)
- reduce fluidity
- reduce permeability
- prevent solidification at room temp
What is the structure of cholesterol? (3)
- polar phosphate head
- polar hydroxyl group
- non-polar tail
What is diffusion?
when particles move down the gradient from high to low concentration (there is simple and facilitated diffusion)
What are the qualifications for simple diffusion? (4)
- movement from high to low concentration
- no energy input
- move through porous membrane of phospholipid
- only small, non-polar molecules can do this
What are the qualifications for facilitated diffusion? (4)
- occurs down the concentration gradient
- requires no energy
- proteins only allow specific solutes
- faster than simple diffusion
What is an example of facilitated diffusion?
voltage-gated potassium channels
What are factors that affect diffusion? (5)
- concentration gradient
- surface area
- length of diffusion path
- temperature
- size of particles
What is osmosis?
the diffusion of water from a low solute concentration to a high solute concentration
Osmolarity
the concentration of a solution through expressing the availability of solute particles per liter
Active Transport (3)
- the movement of solutes across a membrane that requires the use of ATP
- particles must move against the concentration gradient
- use of protein proton pumps
monomer
simple organic molecules
macromolecules
large, complex molecules made from thousands of atoms
What are some purposes of carbohydrates? (3)
- to serve as an energy source
- to provide structure
- to help with signaling molecules
carbohydrate monomers (2)
- monosaccharides
- end in -ose
What does an alpha-D-glucose look like?
the -OH is below the the C on the first carbon
What does an beta-D-glucose look like?
the -OH is above the C on the first carbo
Starch Polysaccharides (3)
- major place of storage in plants
- polymer that is made from alpha-D-glucose
- contains amylose and amylopectin
Amylose (2)
- bonds formed between α-(1,4)
- forms coils that are stabilized by hydrogen bonds
Amylopectin (2)
- bonds formed between α-(1,4) and α-(1,6)
- the α-(1,6) linkage forms branches
Glycogen (2)
- has α-(1,4) and α-(1,6) linkages
- has more branches than amylopectin
What is a structural polysaccharide?
cellulose
Cellulose (5)
- strengthen and support the cell walls of a plant
- made from beta-D-glucose monomers
- straight, unbranched chains
- has hydrogen bonds
- has rigid cell walls
Lipids (4)
- nonpolar hydrocarbons
- insoluble in water
- hydrophobic
- not true polymers
What are the functions of lipids? (2)
- energy source
- energy storage
What is the simplest form of a lipid?
a fatty acid
What is the structure of a fatty acid? (2)
- a carboxylic group
- nonpolar hydrocarbon tail
How can fatty acids be classified?
whether they have double bonds present
How can a saturated fatty acids be identified?
they only have single bonds in their tail
How can unsaturated fatty acids be identified?
they have one or more double bonds in the hydrocarbon tail
What is the difference between a monounsaturated tail and a poly unsaturated tail?
- mono has one double bond in the fatty acid tail
- poly has two or more double bonds in the fatty acid tail
What does a CIS unsaturated fat look like?
hydrogens on the same side as the double bond
What does a trans unsaturated fat look like?
hydrogen on the opposite sides of the double bond
Which fats are solid?
- saturated and transunsaturated
What fats are liquid?
- cisunsaturated fats
Glycolysis
1) Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
2) Starting off with glucose, that glucose is phosphorylated to become hexose bisphosphate which requires 2 ATPs.
3) Another phosphate is added to the triose phosphate to become triose biphosphate which is then oxidized causing it to lose energy/H+
4) In turn, NAD+ is reduced to NADH and 4 ADPs are reduced to 4 ATPs
5) The rest of what is left from the triose phosphates is two pyruvate molecules
6) Overall, there is a net gain of 2 ATPs.
Link Reaction
- The link reaction can also be known as the oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvates. - When a pyruvate enters the link reaction, which occurs when oxygen is present, it attaches to coenzyme A.
- In the process, it is oxidized and decarboxylated.
- Where a carboxyl group, CO2 is lost, which becomes a waste product of the link reaction.
- It also loses electrons/ H atoms/ energy via oxidation which goes to NAD+ which is reduced to NADH.
- The result from this reaction after happening 2 times is 2 NADH and 2 Acetyl CoA, which was left of the pyruvate after the CO2 was lost. These things go onto the next stage, the Krebs cycle.
Krebs Cycle
- acetyl CoA brings its carbons to oxaloacetate
- citric acid is formed
- the coenzyme goes back to the link reaction
- citric acid goes through oxidative decarboxylation
- citric acid is oxidized
- NAD+ is reduced to NADH H+
- CO2 is waste product using oxygen - 5 carbon is result
- 5 carbon goes through oxidative decarboxylation (same result as citric acid)
- 4 carbon goes goes through oxidative decarboxylation
- ADP –> ATP though substrate level phosphorylation
- FAD reduced to FADH2
- NAD+ reduced to NADH H+ - returns back to oxaloacetate
ETC and Chemiosmosis
- The chemical energy needed can be obtained through the oxidation of NADH and FADH2.
- When these are oxidized, they donate energy to the ETC.
- The ETC is a series of protein proton pumps that pump H atoms from the matrix into the intermembrane space.
- The electrons release energy as they flow along the chain from carrier to carrier.
- The ETC uses the energy from the high energy electrons to pump the H atoms.
- When the atoms run out of energy, they are accepted by oxygen which is the terminal electron acceptor.
- ATP synthase enzymes are located in the inner mitochondrial membrane.
- The energy is released as protons pass down their gradient through ATP synthase enzymes. ATP synthase converts ADP to ATP.
Light Dependent Reaction
- Starting with photoactivation, light shines on the pigment in photosystem II
- the electrons to become excited and pass it on to chlorophyll.
- The excited electrons move on to the ETC where a gradient is being formed in the process as H atoms are being pumped into the thylakoid space using energy from the energized electrons.
- Then ATP is formed via chemiosmosis using ATP synthase.
- Photophosphorylation is also used, which is the use of light energy to energize electrons whose energy will be used to form a concentration gradient that will be used to phosphorylate ATP.
- Eventually, electrons in the ETC run out of energy
- go to photosystem I where they are reenergized through photoactivation.
- NADP+ is reduced to NADPH using electrons from photosystem I.
- The H atoms that are needed for the cycle to continue are replenished through photolysis
- water is broken down causing the loss of energy/H atoms/ electrons that are used for photosystem II.
Light Independent Reaction
- use CO2, ATP, and NADPH to make a sugar called triose phosphate
- ATP and NADPH from light dependent reactions
- triose phosphate used to make glucose/other carbs.
