final Flashcards
developmental vs non-developmental theorists
developmental: Piaget, Vygotsky, Erikson, Kohlberg, Damon, froyd
non-developmental: Skinner and Bandura
differences in developmental vs non-developmental theories. give two examples.
non-developmental tends to be wide-ranging and not associated with age. developmental is focused on age and often identifies stimulants for successive development.
beliefs of skinner
came up with operant conditioning
he believed children must perform behavior before learning it
understood the world through behavior (mind is a black box)
believed in reinforcement and punishment
beliefs of bandura
learning can occur through watching behaviors
understood the world through cognition AND behavior (the mind is not a black box)
believed in imitation
what are the differences and similarities between skinner and bandura
they both looked at behavior and how behavior developed. the ways they differed was the how in behavior.
Piaget stages of development
he believed in sensorimotor development in children. kids go from sensorimotor to pre-operational intelligence, to concrete operational intelligence and lastly formal.
Piaget veiw of cognitive development
intelligence needs to be developed in a slow manner
Piaget’s beliefs on heteronomy and autonomy.
heteronomy: early childhood. unilateral respect. kids are dependent on adults. there is built-in power. relationships have the ability to change but rules don’t.
autonomy: middle childhood: mutual respect. driven by relationships with peers. rules can and should be changed if consensus warrants it.
developmental beliefs of Vygotsky
development is shown through speech
Vygotsky’s three stages of development
social speech
private speech
inner speech
Vygotsky’s beliefs on scaffolding and proximal zones of development
scaffolding: support provided by a more knowledgeable other to help a learner move beyond their current level of knowledge or ability. it involves providing just enough support and guidance to help a learner achieve a task that they could not have accomplished independently.
proximal zones of development: the space between what a learner can do independently and with guidance and assistance. shows that learning occurs best in social situations.
Erikson beliefs on development
trust vs mistrust (infancy)
autonomy vs shame (toddlerhood)
initiative vs guilt (preschool)
Industry vs. Inferiority (elementary school)
Kohlberg’s three levels of moral reasoning
three levels of moral development
pre-conventional Level: At this level, moral reasoning is based on self-interest and the avoidance of punishment.
Conventional Level: At this level, moral reasoning is based on social norms and the approval of others.
Postconventional Level: At this level, moral reasoning is based on abstract principles and values that transcend specific laws and cultural norms.
Damon’s levels of moral reasoning
level zero: self-interest, egocentric
level one: equality, merit
level two: balancing multiple considerations, using situational ethic
define pruning
eliminates unused neurons and misconnected dendrites
strengthens existing connections and aids in the development of more complete connections
define affordances and give example
an opportunity for perception and interaction that is offered by a person, place, or object in the environment. example: when you see a door handle, it is a prompt you can use it to open the door
define myelination
Myelination refers to the process of forming a myelin sheath around the axons of neurons in the nervous system. Myelin is a fatty substance that acts as an insulator, speeding up the transmission of electrical signals along the axons.
define lateralization
Lateralization refers to the specialization of certain functions or processes in one hemisphere of the brain, typically the left or right hemisphere.
define temperament
the biologically based core of individual differences in style of approach and response to environment that is stable across time and situations
define attachment
an affectional tie an infant forms with a caregiver - a tie that binds them together in space and endures over time
what is the role of nature and nurture in attachment
Nature refers to the genetic and biological factors that contribute to the development of attachment, while nurture refers to the environmental and social factors that shape attachment. there is a genetic basis for attachment, as certain genetic variations can affect the production of hormones like oxytocin and vasopressin, which play a role in bonding and social behavior. Moreover, cultural and societal factors can also influence attachment development. Cultural differences in parenting practices, such as the emphasis on independence versus interdependence, can shape attachment patterns. Similarly, social support networks and community resources can provide caregivers with the resources and support they need to promote healthy attachment.
what are the four kinds of attachment
secure
anxious/ambivalent
avoidant
disorganized
define gross motor skills
physical abilities involving large body movements
gross motor skills for infancy
sitting
crawling
standing
walking
running
gross motor skills for early childhood
climbing
jumping
kicking, throwing, and catching balls
gross motor skills for middle childhood
strong and consistent skill coordination
sports
define fine motor skills
physical abilities involving small body movements, especially of the hands and fingers
fine motor skills in infancy
grasping
reaching
stacking
self-feeding with a spoon
fine motor skills in early childhood
drawing shapes
writing
self-feeding with a fork
using a knife to cut
pour without spilling
fine motor skills in middle childhood
write/draw/paint
games
instruments
hobbies
household responsibilities
define self-awareness. what age should you expect to see it developed?
person’s realization that he or she is a distinct individual whose body, mind, and actions are separate from those of other people. expected around 18 months
define self-righting. what age do kids begin to show this?
an inborn drive to compensate and overcome problems. shown around 6 to 8 months
define pragmatics. when do kids understand it?
the practical use of language that includes the ability to adjust language communication according to audience and context. understood starting at about age 4
define object permanence. when is it developed?
the realization that objects and people still exist when they can no longer be seen, touched, or heard. developed between 18 and 24 months.
define selective attention. when do kids begin to show it?
the ability to concentrate on some stimuli while ignoring others. shown around age 7.
define experience-expectant.
what every child around the world should go through and the expected milestones
ex: when kids walk
define experience-dependent.
depended on particularly relatable experiences. culture and environment play a role in development
define separation anxiety. when do kids begin to show it?
an infant’s distress when a familiar caregiver leaves. most obvious between 9 and 14 months. intensifies at 2
what is stranger wariness? when do kids begin to show it?
an infant’s expression of concern - a quiet stare while clinging to a familiar person, or a look of fear - when a stranger appears. peaks between 12 and 18 months.
define synchrony? why is it important?
an infant-caregiver exchange that is coordinated, rapid, and smooth. it promotes biological and psychological development. important because it shows connection between child and caregiver
what is Theory of Mind (TOM)?
personal theories about others mental and emotional states
what is the role of nature and nurture in TOM
things you naturally pick up on because its apart of who you are and things your parents taught you that help you understand the mental state of other people.
how would you expect a child to demonstrate TOM
beginning to see and understand that other people do not think as they do. people all have feelings and thoughts that are different.
when does a child demonstrate a transition from a more “copy” view of the mind to a more “interpretive” view?
age 4
what are the major differences in brain maturation between infancy, early childhood, and middle childhood?
infancy: major growth (25-75%), pruning, little brain coordination
early childhood: brain growth (75-90%), brain region coordination, and diversification
middle childhood: slow and steady brain growth
what are the major differences in memory between infancy, early childhood, and middle childhood?
infancy: remembering actions and routines that involve themselves
early childhood: the beginning of explicit memory and the use of words to encode and retrieve information. use repetition as a strategy.
middle childhood: learn new strategies and organize information. very adaptive
what are the major differences in and between the language of infancy, early childhood, middle childhood?
infancy: social speech
early childhood: private speech
middle childhood: inner speech
major differences within middle childhood of math?
6: add and subtract one-digit numbers
8: simple multiplication and division, word problems
10: fractions, percentages, three variable word problems
12: abstract concepts and algebra
major differences with emotion within infancy?
infancy: self-awareness, pride, shame, embarrassment
define longitudinal research? give an example.
one sample group with data taken periodically over time
define cross-sectional research? give an example.
separate groups (samples) data taken at same time
what is constructivism?
robust, reciprocal interaction between an individual and their environment
major differences in reading during middle childhood
6: recognize letters and own names, use sounds to figure out words
8: read simple sentences, and understand basic punctuation, begin comprehension
10: read and understand paragraphs
12: rapid and fluent oral reading, comprehension on unfamiliar topics
what is the diathesis-stress model? how does it work? what does it try to explain?
the diathesis-stress model is a theory that tried to explain the development of mental disorders as a combination of both biological or genetic vulnerability (diathesis) and exposure to stressful life events (stress). When a person with a high level of vulnerability is exposed to significant stressors or adverse life events, the combination of the two factors can trigger the onset of a mental disorder
what is homeostasis?
Homeostasis maintains stable conditions in the body
what is allostasis?
Allostasis helps the body adapt to changes in the environment, long term
natures affect on puberty
60% is explained by genes
African Americans experience puberty earlier than Asian Americans and European or Hispanic Americans
girls begin puberty a few months ahead of boys in terms of hormonal and sexual changes
nurtures affect on puberty
stress is linked to early puberty
malnourishment is linked to late set puberty
what is the relationship between the limbic system and the prefrontal cortex in adolescents?
the limbic system develops my 15 but the prefrontal cortex isn’t developed until 25. this causes a lag in decision-making because emotions are at an all-time high with no judgment.
what is egocentrism? when is it expected to be prevalent in adolescents?
Egocentrism is a cognitive characteristic in which an individual has difficulty understanding or taking into account the perspectives and experiences of others.
personal fable and invincibility fable. decreases by mid adolesents. 10-13
what is inductive reasoning? what part of adolescents has it relied on most?
bottom-up thinking. start with facts and use them to move to conclusions. heavily used before 14
what is deductive reasoning? what age is more prominent in adolescents?
general principles to deduce examples and hypotheticals. present after 14.
what are the characteristics of integrative thinking? when does appear? difference between adolescents and emerging adults.
dual processing: a blend of subjective and objective thought when drawing conclusions.
how does nature affect intelligence?
structure of the prefrontal cortex
50% variability in heritability
how does nurture affect intelligence?
education, health, culture, stressors, and substance abuse
what were the findings of the Seattle intelligence study?
spatial orientation and inductive reasoning begin to decline at the same time for men and women (~53) verbal meaning and word fluency declines faster in men. number ability declines first in women.
crossequential
a mix of longitudinal, cross-sectional and cohort
hearing trends from adulthood through late adulthood
39% report some trouble with hearing
presbycusis: hearing loss due to senescence
what is the definition of senescence?
Senescence is the biological process of aging, during which cells, tissues, and organisms undergo structural, functional, and molecular changes that lead to a decline in their physiological functions and an increased susceptibility to disease and death.
how does senescence affect cognitive functioning in adulthood and late adulthood?
In adulthood, individuals may experience subtle declines in cognitive functioning, such as decreased processing speed, working memory, and attention.
how does senescence affect biosocial functioning in adulthood and late adulthood.
In adulthood, senescence can lead to a decline in physical functioning, which can affect one’s ability to perform daily activities and maintain independence.
what is the difference between primary and secondary aging?
primary: universal and irreversible physical changes associated with age
secondary: specific illnesses and conditions associated with age but caused by genes, health habits, and person-level factors.
Marcia’s four ways to respond to an identity crisis.
Identity Achievement: when an individual has successfully explored different aspects of their identity and has made firm commitments regarding their values, beliefs, and life goals
Identity Foreclosure: individuals make commitments to certain identities or roles without engaging in significant exploration
Identity Moratorium: This response involves actively exploring different identities and roles without committing to any particular one
Identity Diffusion: occurs when individuals have not explored different identities or made any firm commitments. They may lack a clear sense of who they are and what they want in life.
Carol Gilligan views on justice and care ethics
Justice Ethic: Right and wrong in absolute terms, trends towards relational detachment
care ethic: Compassion - there is a human need for attachment. more reluctant to make absolute judgments of right and wrong
social domain theory
a theoretical framework that aims to understand and explain the development of moral judgments in different domains of social life. It differentiates between moral, social-conventional, and personal domains.
self-theories
emphasize the core self, or the search to maintain ones integrity and identity
socioemotional selectivity theory
older people prioritize the regulation of their own emotions and seek familiar social contacts who reinforce generosity, pride, and joy
stratification theories
Focus on how social forces stratify (differentiate) people via sex, race, and SES, and how these forces may interact in late adulthood to limit individual choices and functioning.
disengagement theory
aging makes a person’s social sphere increasingly narrow, resulting in role relinquishment, withdrawl, and passivity
metacognition
refers to the ability to think about and regulate one’s own cognitive processes. It involves being aware of and understanding one’s own thinking, learning strategies, and problem-solving approaches.
psychopathology
the scientific study and understanding of mental disorders or abnormal psychological functioning.
homogamy
marriage between two people who tend to be similar
social norms approach
a method of reducing risky behavior that uses emerging adults’ desire to follow social norms by making them aware of the prevalence of various behaviors.
heterogamy
marriage between two individuals who tend to be dissimilar
familism
the belief that family members should support one another sacrificing freedom and success if necessary, in order to preserve family unity.
anorexia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by self starvation
bulimia nervosa
eating disorder characterized by binge eating and purging.
circadian rhythm
a day-night cycle of biological activity that occurs approximately every 24 hours.
functional fixedness
the tendency to focus on one purpose of an object
objective thought
thinking that involves facts and numbers and are universally considered true and valid
analytical thought
thought that results from analysis. usually involving pros and cons list, risks and consequences, possibilities and facts.
subjective thought
thinking that is strongly influenced by personal qualities of the individual thinker
intuitive thought
thought that arises from an emotion or a hunch, beyond rational explanation.
dialectical thought
most advanced cognitive process, characterized by the ability to consider a thesis and its antithesis and arrive at a synthesis.
personal fable
adolescents belief that their thoughts, feelings, and experiences are more unique, wonderful, or awful than other people.
invincibility fable
adolescents’ conviction that they cannot be overcome or harmed by anything that might defeat a normal mortal.
organ reserve
Organ reserve refers to the capacity of an organ or system within the body to respond and adapt to stress, challenges, or physiological demands.
heriability
statistic that indicates what percentage of the variation of a particular trait with population can be traces back to genes
intelligence
the ability to learn and understand various aspects of life traditionally focused on reading and math and more recently arts, movement, and social interactions.
general intelligence
Intelligence is one basic trait, underlying all cognitive abilities.
fluid intelligence
basic intelligence that makes learning of all sorts quick and thorough. declines with age
crystallized intelligence
intellectual ability that reflects accumulated learning. increases with age
social convoy
people who move thought the years of life with a person
neurocognitive disorders
Alzheimer’s: gradual deterioration of memory and personality. marked by the formation of plaques of beta-amyloid protein and tangles of tau in the brain
vascular dementia: sporadic and progressive loss of intellectual functioning caused by repeated infarcts or temporary obstruction of blood vessels.
frontotemporal NCDs: deterioration of the amygdala and frontal lobes.
ecological niche
the role and position of a species within its environment or ecosystem. It encompasses the specific set of resources, interactions, and conditions that a species requires for survival, reproduction, and successful functioning within its habitat.
selective optimization with compensation
individuals adapt and maximize their functioning and well-being in the face of age-related changes and challenges
frailty
Frailty refers to a state of increased vulnerability and decreased physiological reserves in older adults, resulting in an increased risk of adverse health outcomes.
activities of daily life (ADLs)
five self-care tasks important for independent living: eating, bathing, dressing, toileting, and transferring from bed to chair
Instrumental Activities of Daily Life (IADLs)
actions important for independent living that require some intellectual competence and forethought
age in place
to remain in the same home and community in later life, adjusting but not leaving when health fades.
ageism
a prejudice whereby people are categorized and judged solely on the basis of their chronological age.
positivity effect
the tendency for elderly people to perceive, prefer, and remember positive images and experiences more than negative ones.
General Affective Complexity Differences
Affective complexity refers to the extent to which an individual experiences and expresses a wide range of positive and negative emotions, as well as the ability to differentiate and articulate the nuances of those emotions
Self-esteem trends
self esteem increases though adulthood, minus a slight dip while going through puberty
biosocial trends (adolescents to adulthood)
puberty and brain maturation, moves to optimal health, and in adulthood aging starts to take place.
cognitive trends (adolescents to adulthood)
hypothetical abstract thinking, to more flexible and integrative thinking, and in adulthood reaching intelligence and expertise.
study on peoples perception of their abilities
younger people were more likely to rank them self as worse than their peers whereas older adults ranked themselves as equal or better.
personality trends in adulthood
stable over time with the exception of increases in conscientiousness and agreeableness and a decrease in neuroticism, extroversion, and openness.
psychosocial trends (adolescents through adulthood)
friends become more about quality over quantity
