Ferdinand & Isabella (1469-1516) Flashcards
Government under F&I
key dates:
- 1469 - F&I marriage
- 1471 - Henry IV dies
- 1476 - Battle of Toro
- 1479 - Treaty of Alcacovas
- 1479 - Ferdinand king of Aragon
- 1494 - Council of Aragon set up
- 1483 - Council of Inquisition set up
- 1489 - Council of Orders set up
- 1493 - all members of Royal Council expected to hold law degree
- 1476 - Santa Hermandad set up
consolidation:
- in 1469, Isabella and Ferdinand married, aiming to unite Castile and Aragon
- Dec 1471 Henry IV died and Isabella proclaimed herself queen of Castile
- anti-Aragonese factions didn’t like this unity and backed the claim Joana la Beltraneja
- she was married to Alfonso, king of Portugal who provided support for her cause
- Isabellas party was headed by Ferdinand, but due to recent Aragonese civil war, support was provided by powerful families (Mendoza family)
- in 1475, French supported Portugal and sent a force into northern Spain but Ferdinand repelled it and even extended his control of Navarre
- in 1476 the two armies met at the battle of Toro but neither side won a convincing victory
- in 1479 a papal nuncio arrived with the news the Pope had reversed his dispensation for Alfonso and Joana’s marriage, securing Isabella the throne
- Treaty of Alcacovas in 1479 ended the conflict
- terms were Portugal gave up all claims to Castile, in turn F&I promised never to claim Portuguese throne
- Prince Alfonso (Alfonso’s son) married to Isabella (F&I’s daughter)
- 1479 King John of Aragon died, making Ferdinand king
restoration of royal authority:
Castile:
- following War of Succession and the weakness of King Henry, lots of work had to be done to re-establish royal authority
- one way it was established was through peripatetic rule, instead of having a fixed capital, they toured around Spain, establishing their court in various places
- this made all areas feel included and experience royal presence, boosting their popularity
- most important challenge was nobility, who had become over-mighty under Henry
- Isabella outlawed private armies, establishing a centralised standing army
- focused aggressive nobility towards a common goal (capturing Granada)
- she also took control of Castilian chivalric orders of Santiago, Calatrava and Alcantara which furthered royal control of powerful military groups
Aragon:
- for Ferdinand discontent was not among the nobles, but among the communality
- he also took a different approach; Crown of Aragon was less absolute than Castile, so instead of imposing complete authority, he adopted a more cooperative approach
royal government:
Aragon:
- 1494 Ferdinand established the Council of Aragon, which helped maintain each areas independence and ensured fueros were respected
- Aragon, Catalonia, Valencia assigned different viceroys, allowing for individual autonomy
- in 1480 he swore to uphold traditional constitutions in-front of Catalonian Cortes
- meant servicios couldn’t be raised and laws couldn’t be passed without consent of the Cortes
- showed he accepted his limitations of power and was very popular with Aragonese
Castile:
- main advisory body was Royal Council, meeting almost daily
- aristocracy and bishops allowed to attend but not allotted voting power, thus keeping them involved but not giving them enormous influence
- emphasis put on letrados; by 1493, all members expected to hold a law degree
- Council of Inquisition established in 1483 and Council of Orders in 1489
- this new conciliar system proved effective and allowed an increase in royal authority
- new institutions established to maintain law and order:
- in 1480, Isabella decreed all Castilian towns should elect corregidors who would maintain royal authority, choice of election was popular and by 1504 64 towns had them
- the Santa Hermandad (like police) was established in 1476, they held authority over everyone, giving equal punishment to commoners and nobility, however disbanded in 1498
- the Audencia was established in Valladolid in 1489, which served as a court of appeal
unity in Spain:
- marriage of F&I brought a semblance of unity, but it was never their objective to secure a new united Spain
- they respected the political and legal variances of their territories
- Catholicism provided an important unifying link across the two kingdoms
- after Isabella’s death, Ferdinand was forced to renounce the Castilian throne the Joana and Archduke Philip
- however Philip died and Joanna (the mad) was deemed unfit to rule so Ferdinand made governor of Castile
- he successfully accommodated the diverse interests of the two kingdoms, not favouring one over the other
F&I’s social policy
key dates:
- 1508 - Alcala university set up
- 1510 - Cuenca university set up
- 1486 - sentence of Guadalupe
- 1486 - F&I granted complete patronato
- 1508 - patranto extended into the NW
- 1493 - Inter Caetera
- 1501 - crown given exclusive rights to NW tithes
the nobility:
- nobility in Castile were extremely powerful
- in 1470, they controlled over 50% of Castilian land
- to combat this:
- private wars were declared illegal
- Isabella began a campaign promoting a cultural shift, emphasising a shift from military might to a more refined and cultured nobility
- nobles also given less influence in politics, with letrados bring favoured
- this led to opening of Alcala university (1508) and Cuenca (1510)
- the wars in Granada used to deplete large noble armies
the peasantry:
- a key social reform in Aragon was the 1486 Sentence of Guadalupe
- this freed the Aragonese remensa class, who were effectively serfs
- gave peasantry greater deal of control over the lands they farmed
- the encouragement of learning and promotion of letrados allowed for greater social mobility
- the peasantry in Castile suffered due to the favouritism of the Mesta, resulting rise in food prices was detrimental
the Church:
- both F&I and the Pope wanted to obtain the power to appoint bishops
- in 1486, the Pope granted complete patronato to F&I, as he required Ferdinand’s assistance in Italy; Ferdinand got this extended to the New World in 1508
- in 1493, the Inter Caetera gave Span exclusive rights to colonise the New World
- 1501 Crown given exclusive right to New World tithes
- its hard to overstate Ferdinands success in negotiating with the Pope to secure ecclesiastical control
- the Ecclesiastical Council of Seville in 1478 confirmed royal appointment if bishops and archbishops
- the standard for bishops also changed with the increase in valuing education
- this raising of standard was not popular with many clergy: 200 Andalusian friars fled to North Africa to convert to Islam
- in 1502, ecclesiastical courts were expected to employ lay judges and solely spiritual punishments could not be imposed for temporal offences
F&I’s religious policy
key dates:
- 1453 - fall of Constantinople
- 1482 - war began
- 1483 Treaty of Cordoba
- 1487 - capture of Malaga
- 1493 Boabdil departed to Africa
- 1502 all Muslims forced to convert or leave
- 1478 Spanish Inquisition set up
- 1482 Torqumada appointed inquisitors general
- 1483 Spanish Inquisitions spread to Aragon
- 1492 Jews expelled from Peninsula
Moriscos and the Reconquista:
- the fall on Constantinople in 1453 and the increasing Ottoman stranglehold on the Mediterranean, made F&I eager to prevent an alliance between the Ottomans and Granadan Moors
- financial benefits as well: silk trade in Granada was great, and the southern kingdom managed part of the Saharan trade in Gold
- war began unexpectedly as a response to the fall of the frontier castle of Zahara in 1482
- already weakened by a lack of artillery, the Moors were not helped by the intra-family rivalries of their dynasty
- the ruling emir, Mulay Hassan was dethroned and his son Boabdil took his place
- in 1483, Boabdil was captured and he swore an oath of vassalage to Ferdinand in the Treaty of Cordoba
- the longevity of the conflict (10 years) can be explained partly by the Moors sheer numbers (500,000 in Granada)
- the leading nobles took the lead, and even well established rivals (Marquess of Cadiz & Duke of Medina Sidonia) cooperated and fought together
- the war led to the emergence of a national army and at the height of conflict F&I had 50,000 foot soldiers & 10,000 cavalry
- the capture of Malaga in 1487 was of strategic importance as it meant Castilian men and supplies could be directed by see, allowing them to disrupt The Moors’ communications with the Muslims in the Mediterranean
- financially, the war effort was especially supported by the Cruzada, amounting to 800,000M maravedis between 1484-92, but it did not cover the total cost of war
- 58M from heavy taxes imposed on Jews between 1482-91, 56M from the sale of slaves from Malaga, 27M from the Mesta, and 300M from the Santa Hermandad between 1482-90 also contributed significantly
- F&I granted generous terms for Boabdil, initially allowing them to live under Muslim law and practice Islam, these were necessary in the ultimate objective of persuading the Moors to emigrate
- Talavera was responsible for reintroducing Catholicism in Granada, and he employed a conversion strategy that was respectful and tolerant
- however he lost the initiative to Cisneros who adopted a more uncompromising stance
- the departure of Boabdil to Africa in 1493 did much to encourage the emigration of Moors, but eventually the policy of emigration became one of expulsion
- this was largely the result of the rebellions between 1499-1501
- by 1502, all Muslims were forced to convert or leave
- throughout the war, 100,000 Moors had been killed, 200,000 fled, leaving the remaining 200,000 Moriscos (converted Moors) still subject to discrimination
- Mendoza was put in charge of Granadan government, while Talavera was appointed Archbishop of Granada
- the conquest strengthened royal authority by linking the Church and d the nobility to the royal cause
- the Reconquista certainly enhanced the Crown, it gained the wealth of Granada, as well as the security of its southern coastline, and the Spanish army became battle-hardened and experienced troops
Jews/Conversos:
- with over 100,000 Conversos, it was feared they were practicing Judaism in secret
- the Spanish Inquisition was set up to eradicate heresy in 1478
- first auto da fe was held in Seville in 1481 and 6 conversos were burnt
- in 1482 7 more inquisitors appointed, as well as the inquisitors general, Torqumada
- by 1483, the inquisition had spread to Aragon, giving Torquemada authority in both regions, a jurisdiction no other official had
- Torquemadas appointed defied Aragonese fueros, as non-native officials were forbidden
- in defence, there were instances of Conversos resorting to violence, as with the assassination of the Inquisitor of Aragon, Pedro de Arbues
- despite resistance, between 1481-88 700 Conversos were burnt to death
- its clear that the conversos became the main target of the inquisition during F&I’s reign; out of 1,200 tried in Barcelona between 1488-1505, all but 8 were conversos
- the pressure on conversos and the forcible conversion of Moors generated social pressure for limpieza de sangre (purity of blood)
- although it never attained official status in law, it was supported by many
- compared to other European states, Spain was actually particularly tolerant of Jews, mainly because of their financial importance
- they were frequently employed as rent and debt collectors, tax farmers and moneylenders, so some towns complained of the excesses of the inquisition
- by 1492, it was decreed that Jews should be expelled from the peninsula on the grounds there presence was preventing conversos from practicing Christianity properly
- out of 200,000 Jews 75% left, and they were forbidden from taking gold, silver, money, weapons and horses
F&I’s economic policy
key dates:
- 1501 - Mesta granted right to use any land that had once been used as pasture
- 1506 - Spain dependent on wheat imports
- by 1516 repapayment for Juros was 131M
- by 1504 Cruzada netted 112M
economic situation:
- Castile had much larger economy than Aragon, the two countries not treated equally
- New World was almost exclusively for Castile
- impact of religious policy:
- 1484 crown published edicts inviting foreign workers to Spain to counterbalance Edict of Expulsion and offered 10 years of tax exemption
- F&I funded wars personally instead of relying on nobles; this left country struggling after the Reconquisa
- agricultural problems:
- Mesta (sheep farming guild) was crucial to Castilian economic success; in 1500 presidents of Mesta promoted to senior positions on the Royal Council
- in 1488 Abraham Senero was put in charge of the Hermandad which controlled wool trade
- in 1501 Mesta granted the right to use any land that had once been used as pasture
- this focus on pastoral farming led to a neglect of arable farming: as a result Spain was dependant on wheat imports by 1506
- 97% of land owned by 3% of population
revenue:
- tax farming main method of collecting income
- individuals bought the right to collect taxes and charged more than they bought them for
- some officials were corrupt and redirected taxes for their own use
- Nobility exempt from taxes and clergy exempt for Alcabala
- the Alcabala was a 10% sale tax which made up aprox 90% of income
- Juros were bonds sold by the crown to grandees and overtime they were repaid with with 10% interest , by 1516 repayments were 131M maravadis
- the servicio y montagazo was tax paid by the Mesta for movement of sheep
- Cortes could grant extraordinary taxes (servicio) for wars etc
- annual income went from 800,000 maravadis in 1470 to 22M maravadis in 1504 due to adept government
- by 1504, cruzada netted 112M maravadis
expenditure:
- lots of money spent on military enterprises
- nationalisation of army cost 500M maravadis between 1495-1504
- Wars in Naples amounted to 454M maravadis
- Catherine of Aragons marriage cost 60M maravadis
F&I’s foreign policy
key dates:
- 1479 - Treaty of alcavolas
- 1492 - New World discovered
- 1493 - Papal Bull granted rights to new lands discovered in New World
- 1503 - encomiendas set up
- 1503 - Casa de Contratacion (house of trade) set up in Seville
background:
- Castile rejected previous policy of allying with France and instead in favour of defending Aragonese boreder territories
- Aragon wished to reclaim Rousillon and Cerdagne
- concerned about Ottoman threat
marriage alliances:
- marriage alliances with Portugal made to secure borders:
- Isabella (F&I eldest daughter) married to Afonso (son of John II) in 1490
- after Afonso’s death, Isabella married his successor Manoel in 1491
- after Isabella’s death, Manoel married Maria (4th daughter) in 1489
- marriage alliances with England as part of anti-French stance:
- Treaty of Medina del Campo agreed marriage between Catherine of Aragon and Arthur, Prince of Wales in March 1489 and they married in 1501
- after Arthurs death, Catherine married Henry in 1509
- marriage alliances with HRE:
- John married Margaret of Austria (daughter of Maximilian) in 1496
- Archduke Philip married Juana in 1496
relations with Portugal:
- Treaty of Alcavolas in 1479
- Portugal conceded ownership of Canary Islands
- Isabella to marry Afonso
- Castile conceded all other territorial disputes, including the gold mines in Guinea (very unpopular)
- F&I pardoned supporters of Joanna
- Joanna’s claim to Castilian throne was waived
- Papal Bull (inter caetera) drew a line down the globe, dividing Portuguese and Castilian claims
policy in Mediterranean:
- motivated by religious zeal (strengthened by success in Granada) to potentially launch a crusade against Ottomans
- Spain supported the Knights Hospitallers in defending Rhodes from an Ottoman siege in 1479-80
- Cordoba helped Venice reclaim the Castle of St. George from the Turks
policy in North Africa:
- North & West Africa of value as it offered gold, slavery & ivory
- during war of succession, Isabella sent privateering ships to attack Portuguese interests in North Africa
- following Treaty of Alcavolas, Portugal gained a trade monopoly in West Africa
- in 1490’s following the Reconquista, F&I desired to continue their crusade against North Africa:
- Cisneros led an army to Oran
- Bougie and Tripoli also targeted
- Algiers became a vassal city
discovery of the New World:
- in 1492, F&I supported Columbus’ venture to find a route west to the Spice Islands of the East Indies
- when he landed at the New World, he thought he had arrived at the East Indies, not realising what he had discovered
- Columbus conducted 3 more expeditions (in 1493, 1497, and 1502) and it became clear what had been found was new lands
- in 1493 F&I managed to secure a Papal Bull, granting them the rights to any newly discovered lands
- the earliest settlements were located in Hispaniola, where the first city (Santo Domingo) was founded in 1496
- grants of encomiendas were set up in 1503, given to conquistadors; under this system, natives had to work and in return were to be protected and educated on the Christian faith
- there was regulations of trade from the New World, Fonseca’s idea to centralise the Indies trade into Seville
- the Casa de Contratacion (house of trade) was established in Seville in 1503
- by 1516 Spanish possessions included: Hispaniola, Puerto Rico and Cuba
political and military strategies:
- F&I and Spanish army greatly experienced from Reconquista
- during Reconquista, F&I paid soldier directly meaning they weren’t reliant on nobles; private wars also outlawed, further decreasing use for noble armies
- new weaponry begging to emerge; heavy cavalry replaced by pikemen and artillery
achievements:
- recovery of: Granada, Naples, Rousillon, Cerdagne and Navarre
- F&I received title “athletes of Christ”
- developed a powerful and experienced army
- marriage alliances secured numerous allies
- strengthened borders
- however, cost of maintaining numerous foreign possessions was unmaintainable
F&I’s foreign policy (French & Italy)
key dates:
- 1493 - Treaty of Barcelona
- 1512 - control of Navarre seized
- 1494 - France invaded Italy
- 1504 - France acknowledged Spanish possession of Naples
relations with France:
- Treaty of Barcelona in 1493
- France conceded Cerdagne and Roussillon as they were preoccupied with Italy and didn’t wish to have conflict
- Spain united with England and HRE to refute Charles’ claim annexation of Burgundy
- major part of F&I’s policy was invasion of Navarre
- in 1512, a dispute rose of the succession in Navarre, Ferdinand seized the opportunity and invaded, taking control
- while it was small, it provided a useful buffer zone between Spain and France
conflict with France & Italy:
- at the end of 15th century, Italy was split into several states
- in 1494 France invaded Italy, making it to Naples before encountering any serious resistance
- Naples unable to secure support from Ferdinand, so it fell in 1495
- same year Spain joined an alliance with England and HRE to appose French expansion and France retreated
- Spanish forces in Italy commanded by Gonzalo de Cordoba and he was positioned in Naples in 1495-97 but failed to achieve much due to French cavalry
- in 1501 Cordoba sent back to Naples, and learnt from his mistakes, he started using artillery
- he also pioneered new techniques using pikes, firearms and javelins which proved effective, winning him two victories at Cerignola, leading to France acknowledging Aragonese possession of Naples in 1504
reasons for Spanish intervention in Naples:
- F&I believed it was their duty to protect the Pope as Christian Monarchs
- Ferdinand saw French expansion into Naples as dangerous to Spanish interests in the Mediterranean
impact of Naples on Spain:
- Naples provided considerable amount of grain
- generated income for Spain
- made Spain predominant influence in Italy
- however, it extended Spanish frontiers, forcing Spain to commit to Naples’ defence against Ottomans
- pressured Spain into further diplomatic and military conflict with France
